4E The Expanse (optional excursus)

An excursus is like an appendix and provides a digression from the main text. The excursuses are completely optional and are not a required part of the course. The excursuses in the first 12 chapters are my updates to a popular interpretation of the first chapter of Genesis in the 19th century: the day-age interpretation of Arnold Guyot. 

In the second phase of solar system formation, Moses described the formation of a disk (expanse) that bisected waters on either side of the disk, and separated useful waters from useless waters. 

Genesis 1:6. And God said, “Let there be an expanse (rāqîa) in the midst of the waters, and let it separate the waters from the waters.”

Compare this description to the position of the circumsolar disk, shape of the disk, and the separation of materials in the NASA drawing of the circumsolar disk (Figure 4E-1).

God then separated the waters below the expanse from the waters above the expanse (Genesis 1:7). 

Genesis 1:7. God made the expanse and separated the waters below from the waters above.

The positions, "below" and "above," are analogous to positions at the base of a wall and on top of a wall. This corresponds with positions in the disk that are closer to (below) and further from (above) the sun (Figure 4E-1). 

One of the major problems in astronomy is that there was an unexplained gap in the circumsolar disk between the inner and the outer solar system. It is interesting that Moses claimed that God formed a gap. 

The meaning of rāqîa

As with v. 3 and the first day, "Let there be" is the Hebrew jussive verb, yehi, which is usually translated as become; thus, the most likely meaning is, "become an expanse." As with the command for light to form in the darkness, the most likely meaning is that the expanse forms in the waters, "the expanse is in the midst of the waters." Many theologians support the concept that the waters, deep, darkness, and earth were all one substance.

"The chaotic mass in which the earth and the firmament were still undistinguished, unformed, and as it were unborn, was a heaving deep, an abyss of waters (ἄβυσσος, lxx), and this deep was wrapped in darkness." [1] 

"And the earth was without form, and void,.... It was not in the form it now is, otherwise it must have a form, as all matter has; it was a fluid matter, the watery parts were not separated from the earthy ones; it was not put into the form of a terraqueous globe it is now, the sea apart, and the earth by itself, but were mixed and blended together;"  [2]

Rāqîa is either translated as expanse or firmament, which have vastly different meanings. This paragraph reviews the analysis of rāqîa by Gorg, in the Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament. It is a Semitic word, but it is not found in ancient Semitic languages but only in later Semitic dialects. Rāqîa is derived from the Semitic verb rq‘, which has the meanings, “to spread out,” [3] which suggests that rāqîa, which is a noun, means extended surface; however, it is also related to the root rqq, which implies that the meaning is to be then or to make thin.[4] It is also related to some Akkadian words, which mean “become thin/narrow,” “thin narrow/fine,” “very thin, and a thin garment.” It is also related to the Late Babylonian, “a thin decorative plate,” and a “thin, narrow area.” It is probably related to the Akkadian ruqqu, which means a kettle or bowl. Ugaritic might have a related word that means plate. The primary meaning is to make thin.

Gorg listed related Semitic words that represented thin and flat objects, such as flatbread. The raqiq wafer, mentioned several times in the Pentateuch (the five books of Moses), was thin and flat. Gorg concluded that the shape of the rāqîa was a flat plate or disk, and described the Genesis rāqîa of v. 6 as a flat heavenly plate.[5] Gorg did not insist that rāqîa referred to a solid.

Gorg stated that rāqîa is not found in ancient Semitic (i.e. Akkadian) languages but is only found in the Bible and in more recent Semitic languages such as Aramaic. This is were I diverge from Gorg, who apparently thought that Genesis was written by Jewish priests in the Babylonian exile of the 6th century BC (P etc..). The Biblical timeline (Section 14E-10) places Moses’ composition of Genesis in the 17th century BC, which is prior to any mention of rāqîa in any language, which means that it did not refer to a dome over the sky or to any other mythical concept of the heavens prior to its use by Moses in Genesis. If Genesis had been written in the 6th century BC, then the 6th century Greek or Mesopotamian concepts of dome heavens might be considered as candidates for the meaning of rāqîa but not if Moses composed Genesis in the 17th century BC.

In addition to Moses’ 2nd day, there are four other locations with rāqîa in the Bible: Genesis 1:20, Exodus 24:10, several locations in Ezekiel, and Psalm 150:1. I will cover the last three here and then review Genesis 1:20 as part of the 19th century debate. Because Genesis was written prior to the other passages, the use in these passages was derived from the original use in Genesis.

In Exodus 24:10, the rāqîa refers to a platform on which God stood on Mt. Sinai when God was talking to Moses. Because God was on Mt. Sinai, this was not a dome high in the sky. It was probably a flat platform that was probably at the scale of tens of feet in width.   

In Ezekiel's vision, there is an extensive description of a heavenly chariot, which had a crystalline platform called a rāqîa. Theologians agree that this was not the expanse of heaven. It is almost always depicted as a flat surface under the throne and above the angels of the chariot.  

Psalm 150:1 "Praise the LORD! Praise God in His sanctuary; Praise Him in His mighty expanse." This Psalm is spoken to musicians who are playing in front of the tabernacle. The precise meaning of mighty expanse is unknown. Some think that mighty expanse refers to a dome of stars over the earth. Others think that mighty expanse refers to the flat area around the tabernacle where the musicians played music.[6] Possibly, it was the wider area over which their instruments could be heard. Some people think that "in his mighty expanse" refers to the fact that musicians were playing in the atmosphere. In summary, the precise meaning is debatable. Thus, the other rāqîas referred to flat objects or have an uncertain meaning. 

The thin surface and implication of substance compares well to the midplane dust layer in particular but also to protoplanetary disks, which form in the dark molecular cloud envelope (water is primary solid) surrounding the protostar. For example, the Hamburger nebula (Figure 4E-2) is a side view of a forming disk, which is blocking the direct light of the star, but the light is above and below the disk.

Comparison of Moses' expanse to the circumsolar disk

Thin and flat disks normally form around young stars. Figure 4E-2 is a side view of a disk blocking out the light from its star. Although the disk in Figure 4E-2 is thick, the midplane dust layer, which is where planets form, is much thinner (100 km) than the width (i.e., orbit of Neptune, 4.5 billion kilometers).

Figure 4E-3 shows many disks around young stars that are observed with the ALMA telescope in the infrared to microwave range.

"…and let it separate the waters from the waters." The separation in v. 6, mabdil, refers to the separation of different substances rather than forming a physical gap between parts. It generally means that something useless is separated from something useful. In the case of the circumsolar disk, the useful solids for planet formation were separated from the useless gas in the disk atmosphere. This occurred as ice and dust fell from the disk atmosphere to the midplane dust layer (Figure 4E-4), which separated the planet building materials from the gaseous majority of the disk by gravity.

Although the rāqîa does not necessarily refer to a solid, there is an implication of substance. Likewise, the midplane dust layer contained solids. Based on descriptions of midplane dust layers and disk atmospheres,[7] [8]  the midplane dust layer was a billion times denser than its surroundings. Solids on earth are only a thousand times denser than the atmosphere. The midplane dust layer was composed of dust particles that were the size of cigarette smoke particulates.

There should be some allowance for a nonsolid rāqîa. Gorg listed one of the meanings as thin fabric. The Greek term, stereoma, which rāqîa was translated as in the Greek Septuagint, could refer to the solidity of a line of soldiers as they made a formation to resist an enemy.

The following list summarizes the ways in which the midplane dust layer matched the descriptions in v. 6.  

1. The expanse follows the formation of the sun on the first day, as does the midplane dust layer in solar system formation.

2. The waters became the expanse, as did the midplane dust layer.

3. Rāqîa (expanse) most commonly has the shape of a flat disk, as does the midplane dust layer.

4. Verse 6 states that the expanse perfectly bisected the waters (in the middle of) above and below it, as does the midplane dust layer.

5. Verse 6 describes a process of separation between useful and useless waters, as does gravity in the midplane dust layer.

6. Associated verb raqa commonly refers to thinning over time as in pounding out gold plating, as did the midplane dust layer.

7. Rāqîa is normally a solid. The midplane dust layer was over 1 billion times denser than the surrounding disk atmosphere and remaining molecular cloud core, was composed of solids , and was initially opaque (solid looking).

8. The expanse precedes the formation of Earth on the third day, as does the midplane dust layer.

God’s supernatural intervention to form the inner terrestrial planets.

One of the great mysteries in the evolution of the solar system is the apparent gap that formed between Earth and the asteroid belt and the formation of planetesimals in the inner solar system in a band between Earth and Venus (Section 4-6). For the last decade, researchers have proposed many innovative hypotheses to explain the formation of this gap. One is Grand Tack, where in inward migrating Jupiter wiped out the materials in this part of the circumsolar disk before migrating back out to its current position. The problem with this scenario is that it requires extreme fine tuning. Another is the Jupiter dust barrier or similar scenarios, in which Jupiter blocked inward moving pebbles from the outer solar system. Another proposed scenario is the Nice model (Nice, France) in which Jupiter disrupted the orbits of planetesimals in the asteroid belt. All of these scenarios have weaknesses (see Chapter 5). These scenarios are dependent on the existence of Jupiter prior to the formation of the inner solar system. Finally, planetary scientists propose the scenario that the gap in the region between earth and the asteroid belt just existed early in the history of the solar system, but there no known explanation for the gap. A recent paper in Science journal by Levinson et al. (reviewed in chapter 5) indicates that the inner solar system formed prior to Jupiter. If so, then all of the scenarios to explain the gap based on dynamics of Jupiter and its effect on the inner solar system would not be relevant.

In v. 7, Moses describes a miracle that seems to fit the scientific problem of the gap in the protoplanetary disk, where “below” refers to a location close to the sun, and above refers to a location away from the sun. In the past, I interpreted “below” as under the disk and above as on the other side of the disk, which might possibly explain the formation of the inner terrestrial planets, but further grammatical analysis and the scientific problem of the gap in the protoplanetary disk has caused me to change the interpretation.

Hamilton thought that God caused the separation after the expanse formed, based on the parallel of vv. 6-7 with vv. 3-4, in which God separated the light from the darkness after natural formation of light, Hamilton also thought that the grammatical construction of the sentence supports this interpretation.[9] The word “made” means make or fabricate. It does not mean create.  Thus, the straightforward interpretation is that God physically separated (v. 7) already existing waters (v. 6). The challenge is to determine the direction of separation of the waters and to define which waters were separated.

The word translated as separated in v. 7 is the same word translated as separated in v. 4 and refers to physical separation. It indicates that God separated two sections of waters from each other, the waters below from the waters above.  If two sections are separated, then a gap appears. 

The word “made” means make or fabricate. It does not mean create.  Thus, God physically separated (v. 7) already existing waters (v. 6). The word translated as separated in v. 7 is the same word translated as separated in v. 4 and refers to physical separation. It indicates that God separated two sections of waters from each other, the waters below from the waters above.  If two sections are separated, then a gap appears.

The Hebrew word translated as “below” in v. 7 is mittaḥat. The word mittahat includes the preposition min and the root word tachath. Tachath alone refers to one of the following physical positions: flat, below, under, and at the foot of. The word is used in several contexts. For example, it referred to a position at the foot of Mt Sinai when Moses threw down the Ten Commandments. In v. 7, mittahat is followed by rāqîa with the lamed preposition, mittahat larāqîa. Similarly, in Genesis 35:8, mittahat is followed by a word with the lamed preposition. Most translations have “under Bethel,” which referred to the town of Bethel, but Gesenius translated it as “at the foot of Bethel,” Ellicot’s commentary stated, “This oak was “beneath Beth-el,” that is, in the valley below it.” Cambridge Bible Commentary had, “below Beth-el] On lower ground, probably to the south.” [10] In I Samuel 7:11, mittahat and the lamed preposition describe a location at the lower end of the city of Bethcar, “striking them down all the way to an area below Beth-car.” I Kings 4:12 has the same combination, “which is beside Zaretan below Jezreel,” referring to a location that is downhill from Jezreel. The bottom of the slope is the low point, or the foot of. Thus, the location of below in Genesis 1:7 is the lower gravitational point of the expanse near to the sun, which would be the foot of the disk.

The phrase translated as “above the expanse” is me el lārāqîa. There are three verses in the Bible with me el and the lamed preposition in the following word (Nehemiah 12:31, 12:37 and Jonah 4:6). In Nehemiah 12:31, me el is followed by a word with different vowel points on the lamed preposition, laḥōwmāh; In this case, ḥōwmāh means wall, and the phrase is translated as "on top of the wall" or "on the wall." New King James Version “So I brought the leaders of Judah up on the wall,” NASB 1995 “Then I had the leaders of Judah come up on top of the wall,” The person on top of the wall being further from the center of gravity, is like the outer part of the midplane dust layer being further from the sun. The people are not on the other side of the wall. Nehemiah 12:37 also has a case with me el is followed by the lamed preposition. It is a confusing verse, but the King James translates it as on the wall above the house of David. Other versions have "beyond the house of David." In Jonah 4:6 me el ləyōwnāh, refers to a plant that has grown over the top of Jonah, “above” Jonah. These two examples also indicate a high position that is further from the center of gravity.

Figure 4E-6 shows the disk in the vertical orientation and the gap that God might have formed. Figure 4E-7 shows the relative sizes of the “below” part of the disk and the “above” or outer part of the disk.  The below part is very small, but this is reasonable since the oak tree occupied a small area below Bethel (Gen 35:8).

God names the expanse heaven

Genesis 1:7b-8 And it was so, and God called the expanse (rāqîa) heaven.

God called the expanse heaven, which is consistent with the fact that the subject of the first chapter of Genesis is the solar system (heavens). Usually, each of the days of Genesis ends with God calling something good; however, God did not so on the second day. This reason for this is that protoplanetary disk was not intended to be permanent but was only preparatory for the formation of the planets.

The 19th century debate.

Guyot thought that the second day of creation described the division of the central light of the galaxy into stars and planets.   He did not give a precise definition of the expanse. He thought it represented open space, whether the atmosphere or the entire nebula that divided into stars and planets, or possibly all of the universe. Guyot mentioned that the Milky Way and the solar system had the shape of a disk and that planets formed as rings based on gravitational processes; however, he never explicitly tied the expanse to the shape of a disk. He thought that the entire heavens and all the stars constituted the expanse. He also did not think that the light that formed on day one was the sun but was some greater light of the galaxy. Guyot thought that the separation in v. 7 referred to the natural processes of separation that took place in the solar system and galaxy.[11]

Morton objected to the fact that Guyot thought that the expanse was open space.[12] As with many scholars and denominations at the end of the 19th century and at the present time, Morton thought that the rāqîa should be translated as firmament and that it was a prescientific myth of a solid dome over a flat earth that held up an ocean of water above Earth (Figure 4E-8). Much of the debate centered on the meaning of Genesis 1:20. In Moses’ 5th day, Genesis 1:20 describes insects or birds (flying creatures) flying within or flying in front of the expanse. The English translations of this verse have a range of interpretations that still reflect this debate that has been going on for the last century.

The waters were named as seas in Moses’ 3rd day, and the expanse was named as the heavens in Moses’ 2nd day. Based on the structure of the entire verse with waters in the first half of the verse, it would be surprising if the expanse in Genesis 1:20 was not the same expanse as was named on the Moses’ 2nd day.

Morton believed that the rāqîa was the dome (Figure 4E-8) over the earth, and he preferred the translation, "in front of the expanse," which means that the expanse is beyond the location where the birds fly.[13] He argued that pene is generally translated as "in front of" or "before." Guyot thought that the expanse referred to open space or heaven, and thus he preferred the open expanse interpretation and argued that the birds fly within the expanse (Genesis 1:20).[14]

Morton argued for a solid rāqîa by referring to several theologians: Dods stated that the Hebrews viewed the rāqîa as a structured dome in heaven that held up waters, and that it had doors in it through which the rains fall (Figure 4E-8).[15] Lange stated that the Hebrews viewed the sky as a vault, like a molten mirror (Job 37:18), and that it rested on the hills, which are referred to as the pillars of heaven.[16] Harper stated that "the universe is conceived of a diving bell in water" and described how water comes into the universe from top and bottom.[17] Gesenius, stated.

. 

"rāqîa is properly "a solid expanse." The root means "to beat out," i.e. to spread or expand by beating, as God did the Earth (Ps. beat out," i.e. to spread or expand by beating, as God did the Earth... properly by beating and stamping in order to make a solid foundation. The noun rāqîa; the firmament of heaven (Gen. i. 6 ), etc. The Hebrews supposed the firmament to be spread out like a solid hemispheric arch over the earth, shining and pellucid as sapphire ( Ex. xxiv 10; cf. Dan. xii. 3); in it were fixed the stars (Gen. i. 14-17); and above it was the celestial ocean with windows in the firmament through which the waters fell as rain upon the earth (Gen. i. 7; vii. ll; Ps. civ. 2; cxlviii. 4); this latter being the common notion, although the true state of the case was not un­known to the Hebrews (see Gen. ii. 6; Job xxxvi. 27-28)." [18]

Morton argued that firmament was the correct translation of rāqîa, rather than expanse, and that this indicated that it was a solid dome. Approximately half of English language Bibles translate rāqîa as firmament and the other half as expanse. The firmament was Jerome’s translation of rāqîa in the Latin Vulgate in the 3rd century AD. The firmament referred to a solid celestial sphere in the ancient Greek cosmology (Figure 4E-8). Although the translation of rāqîa as firmament referred to a celestial sphere, this was not the meaning of any known translation prior to Jerome’s translation in the 3rd century AD. In the Septuagint, the Hebrew word rāqîa was translated as the Greek word stereoma, but at the time it was translated did not refer to any specific shape and specifically did not refer to the shape of a celestial sphere or dome.[19] Although modern dictionaries currently list the firmament as one of its meanings, this was not the meaning of stereoma in 280 BC. Stereoma had several uses in the Greek language. For example, it referred to a firm front in a military sense (a line of soldiers). Another meaning was a solid and firm foundation. The Greek word stereomatize referred to the process of stamping or trampling out, which was like the meaning of raqa, the Hebrew verb related to raqia. Raqa referred to the spreading out of various substances such as malleable metals, porous soil (stamping feet), figurative dust (crushing enemies), and the offspring of the Earth (people spreading out). In general, stereoma meant to make firm. Apparently, stereoma did not necessary refer to a solid object but to the characteristic of solidity, such as a line of soldiers. The Septuagint was translated just after the time of Aristotle, who was a strong proponent of the solid celestial spheres (firmamentum), which was the dominant Greek conception of the heavens. If the translators of the Septuagint wanted to use a word that referred to solid celestial sphere, then they could have done so. Jerome, in the third century AD, chose a word, firmamentum, that referred to the dominant Roman/Greek conception of the heavens at the time. 

The concept that Moses’ 2nd day was derived from a Mesopotamian mythical dome arose just prior to the time that Morton wrote his papers. In the 1880s, Julius Wellhausen presented the documentary hypothesis. Wellhausen proposed that the Book of Genesis was not written by Moses but was written by legalistic Jewish priests in the 6th century BC to justify their unappealing legalism (unappealing to Wellhausen). About a decade later, Gunkel took the documentary hypothesis a step further and proposed that the Jewish priests adapted Genesis from the Babylonian Enuma Elish myth during the Babylonian captivity of the sixth century BC. Neither Wellhausen nor Gunkel believed in the divine inspiration of the Bible. Stephen Bertmann described the similarities and differences between the first days of Genesis and the Enuma Elish.

"Each work begins by describing the watery chaos and primeval darkness that once filled the universe. Then light is created to replace the darkness. Afterward, the heavens are made and in them heavenly bodies are placed. Finally, man is created. These similarities notwithstanding, the two accounts are more different than alike." [20]

Joshua Mark [21] compared the similarities between the Enuma Elish and the account of Moses (Table 4E-1). 

Table 4E-1. Comparison of Genesis first two days of creation with Enuma Elish sequence.

Scholars have various estimates of the time of composition of the Enuma Elish, ranging from the time of Hammurabi (18th century BC) to the time of Nebuchadnezzar (11th century BC). Lambert, the translator of the Enuma Elish text in Appendix A, estimated a late 12th century composition. [22]  Although there are many estimates of the date of composition of the Enuma Elish, they are not necessarily made by experts. According to my calculations (a nonexpert), Moses wrote the first five books of the Bible between 1650 and 1610 BC (Section 14E-10, chronology of the Bible link), which precedes Lambert's estimate of the date of the Enuma Elish. If the Genesis account of creation was composed in the 6th century BC, as claimed by Gunkel and Wellhausen, then the Genesis account would follow the Enuma Elish in time. To prove that the Enuma Elish was composed before the Bible, Gunkel claimed that tehom was not a normal Hebrew word at the time Moses wrote the Bible but was derived from the goddess Tiamat in the Enuma Elish; however, thm was a common Semitic word in Ugaritic literature from the 13th and 14th century BC. In addition, ti amatum was found in literature from Ebla, a thousand years earlier. In both cases, it meant ocean or abyss. 

The Mesopotamian dome is not a close geometric match with the description in v. 6. It is more likely that the intended shape of the rāqîa was a flat disk. The dome is also not a bisector, either from the perspective of its shape or from the perspective of having an equal amount of water above and below it. While it is somewhat reasonable to hypothesize that the Genesis text was based on a mythical conception of heaven in Hebrew minds, it is unreasonable to imagine that the people who were partially responsible for the development of science, technology, and mathematics in Mesopotamia and Egypt could not describe the shapes in their own minds.

Because there was no term rāqîa in the 17th century BC, which is the traditional estimate of the time that Moses wrote Genesis, there would be no reason to think that it described a dome at that time. This is because it probably referred to a flat surface, as described by Gorg, and because it is described as a bisector in v. 6. 

Theologians with the perspective that Genesis 1 is derived from a Mesopotamian myth believe that Genesis 1 has nothing to do with modern science (actual natural history). They and I would agree that a detailed agreement between Moses' six days and actual natural history would not be possible if the six days were simply an adaption of the Enuma Elish myth by Jewish priests in the 6th century BC. There was no term raqiya 

The source of argument in Genesis 1:20 is ‘al- pənê. The same phrase is used in many verses that describe something on the surface of the land or water; however, the phrase is often used to refer to a location that is next to or across a large valley from another location, such as Mt. Nebo, which is on the opposite side of the Jordan Valley from Jericho. The following list of verses have this use of the phrase. 

Genesis 18:16, and looked toward  (the face of) Sodom,

Genesis 23:19, at Machpelah facing Mamre;

Genesis 25:9, the Hittite, which [is] before Mamre;

Genesis 25:18, unto Shur, that [is] before Egypt;

Genesis 49:30, of Machpelah, which [is] before Mamre;

Numbers 23:28, of Peor, that looketh toward Jeshimon.

Numbers 33:7, which is upon east of Baal Zephon;

Deuteronomy 32:49 of Moab, that [is] over against Jericho;

Joshua 13:3, From Sihor, which [is] before Egypt:

Joshua 13:25, unto Aroer that [is] before Rabbah;

Joshua 15:8 of the mountain that [lieth] before the valley;

Joshua 17:7, to Michmethah, that [lieth] before Shechem;

Joshua 18:14; from the hill that [lieth] before Bethhoron;

Joshua 18:16, of the mountain that [lieth] before the valley;

Joshua 19:11, to the river that [is] before Jokneam;

Judges 16:3, of an hill that [is] before Hebron;

I Samuel 24:2, and his men in front of the Rocks;

I Samuel 26:1, 26:3, of Hachilah, [which is] before Jeshimon;

I Samuel 2:24, of Ammah, that [lieth] before Giah;

In these verses, ‘al- pənê normally referred to a location that is next to, near, or separated by a valley from another location. In Genesis, Abraham's cave looked out on the oaks of Mamre, where God had previously visited Abraham. The cave was (is) at the bottom of a hill in what is now Hebron. In Deuteronomy 32:49, ‘al- pənê referred to a location (Mt Nebo) that is across the wide Jordan valley from Jericho. In Joshua, ‘al- pənê normally referred to the advance of the troops of Israel to the boundary of the next region. The concept that the birds flew in the atmosphere, which was before the expanse, after their ancestors populated the seas corresponds with the normal use of the term in Joshua. The animal kingdom was moving outward and populating a new region but had not reached the rāqîa heavens. The atmosphere was the next step before the Sun, moon, and planets, which was the rāqîa heavens. In I Samuel, the phrase refers to positions in front of landmarks or towns. In most of the verses, the nearby locations would have represented a line from the perspective of the viewer. In my opinion, the phrase does not correspond as well with birds flying in front of a dome that is above the location where the flying creatures flew because the dome is a surface. When the phrase ‘al- pənê is used in reference to a surface (verses are not listed above), the objects are directly on the surface (contiguous) and not at a distance from the surface.

Morton's second objection was that Guyot ignored the fact that waters were not part of the Laplace-Herschel nebular hypothesis, and waters is mentioned six times in the second day.  Morton did not think that waters could possibly correlate with the “separation of luminous primitive nebulae.” He quoted Canon Driver, who said, "I protest against the assumption, which Professor Dana's theory (Guyot's theory) involves, that an attenuated vapor or nebula could be denoted in Hebrew by the word 'wa­ters.' [23] Obviously, this objection has been answered by modern science, since the midplane dust layer was 50% water ice, 25% dust, and 25% organic ices.

Although Guyot's interpretation of the 2nd day of creation had many shortcomings due to the status of 19th century natural history, his interpretation was endorsed by Charles Hodge.[24] Because the 21st century update is like Guyot’s in its overall concept, Hodge probably would have endorsed it.

Popular interpretations

This section summarizes three interpretations of the expanse of the second day: the atmosphere, the Mesopotamian dome, the 19th century day-age interpretation (the Milky Way), and the 21st century day-age interpretation (the midplane dust layer of the circumsolar disk). Table 4E-2 compares Moses' 2nd day in the left column to the various interpretations. The waters becoming an expanse (2), is the normal meaning of the Hebrew word yehi. The concept that the rāqîa is a flat disk (3) is guided by Semitic etymology, as elucidated by Gorg, as well as other passages that describe flat rāqîas. The concept that the disk bisects the waters (4) is the normal meaning of betavek. The expanse causing a separation of useful and useless waters (5) is the meaning of mabdil. The rāqîa normally refers to a solid object (6) although there might be some room for the interpretation that the rāqîa describes a nonsolid object. The rāqîa is normally thin (7), although stereoma might indicate that it can be strong or firm. Finally, Moses stated that God separated lower and outer parts of the rāqîa after it formed (8). [25]. 

Table 4E-2 shows that Moses' description of the 2nd day correlates with actual natural history. Guyot's interpretation has almost no agreement with the details of vv. 6-7 (Table 4E-2), but the 21st century update has almost complete agreement with the verses. 

Many scholars who hold to the day-age interpretation, such as Hugh Ross and Reasons to Believe, think that the expanse is the atmosphere, which separates the waters above (clouds) from the waters below (sea).

. 

Table 4E-2. Comparison of four interpretations of Moses' second day 

References

[1]  Keil and Delitzsch Commentary on the Old Testament. Volume 1: Pentateuch. T and T Clark, 1891

[2] Gill's Exposition of the Entire Bible. Book of Genesis. 1748.

[3] M Gorg, “Rāqîa,” Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament, vol 13, Ed. Botterweck, Ringgren, and Fabry (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdman’s, 2004), p. 646.

[4] Gorg, Rāqîa

[5] Gorg, Rāqîa

[6] M. Schimmelpennick. Psalms according to the Authorized Version / An Essay upon the Psalms. (Bristol, England: W. Richardson Publishers, 1825). 343.

[7] Yamoto, Fumiharu, and Minoru Sekiya. "The gravitational instability in the dust layer of a protoplanetary disk: axisymmetric solutions for nonuniform dust density distributions in the direction vertical to the midplane." Icarus 170, no. 1 (2004): 180-192. 

[8] Bergin, E. A., R. L. Snell, and P. F. Goldsmith. "Density structure in giant molecular cloud cores." The Astrophysical Journal 460 (1996): 343.

[9]  Victor Hamilton, The Book of Genesis: Chapters 1–17, vol. 1 of the New International Commentary on the Old Testament (Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1990), 122.

[10] Commentaries at biblehub.com

[11] Guyot, Arnold. Creation, the Biblical Cosmogony in the Light of Modern Science. (New York: Charles Scribner & Sons, 1884). Free in Google books.

[12] Morton, Henry. "The Cosmogony of Genesis and its reconcilers." Part A. Bibliotheca Sacra. 54 (1897) 27.

[13] Morton, Reconcilers

[14] Guyot, Cosmogony.

[15] Morton, Reconcilers

[16] Morton, Reconcilers

[17] Morton, Reconcilers

[18] Morton, Reconcilers

[10] Guyot, Cosmogony

[11] Morton, Henry. "The Cosmogony of Genesis and its reconcilers." Part A. Bibliotheca Sacra. 54 (1897) 27. 

[12] Guyot, Cosmogony.

[13] Morton, Reconcilers.

[14] Morton, Reconcilers.

[15] Morton, Reconcilers.

[16] Morton, Reconcilers.

[17] Morton, Reconcilers.

[18] Morton, Reconcilers.

[19] Martin, Gary. Raqia: Form and Function of the “Firmament” as a Celestial limes/limen in Israelite Cosmology. Accessed on August 13, 2011 at <http://faculty.washington.edu/garmar/Raqia.pdf>

[20] Bertman, S. Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia. Oxford University Press, 2005.

[21] Mark, Joshua J. "Enuma Elish - The Babylonian Epic of Creation - Full Text." World History Encyclopedia. Last modified May 04, 2018. https://www.worldhistory.org/article/225/enuma-elish---the-babylonian-epic-of-creation---fu/.

[22] Lambert, W.G. "Enuma Elish," ABD Journal 2:527.

[23] Morton, Reconcilers.

[24] Hodge, Charles, Systematic Theology, (New York: Scribner Armstrong and Company, 1873), 573.

[25] Hamilton, Genesis.

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Circumsolar disk or possibly midplane dust layer. Credit: Frank Shu, NASA. (Figure 4E-1)

Appendix A. Enuma Elish Mesopotamian myth.

This is the Enuma Elish myth that Gunkel stated was the basis of the Genesis account. [23] 

Tablet I

1 When the heavens above did not exist,

2 And earth beneath had not come into being —

3 There was Apsû, the first in order, their begetter,

4 And demiurge Tia-mat, who gave birth to them all;

5 They had mingled their waters together

6 Before meadow-land had coalesced and reed-bed was to he found —

7 When not one of the gods had been formed

8 Or had come into being, when no destinies had been decreed,

9 The gods were created within them:

10 Lah(mu and Lah(amu were formed and came into being.

11 While they grew and increased in stature

12 Anšar and Kišar, who excelled them, were created.

13 They prolonged their days, they multiplied their years.

14 Anu, their son, could rival his fathers.

15 Anu, the son, equalled Anšar,

16 And Anu begat Nudimmud, his own equal.

17 Nudimmud was the champion among his fathers:

18 Profoundly discerning, wise, of robust strength;

19 Very much stronger than his father's begetter, Anšar

20 He had no rival among the gods, his brothers.

21 The divine brothers came together,

22 Their clamour got loud, throwing Tia-mat into a turmoil.

23 They jarred the nerves of Tia-mat,

24 And by their dancing they spread alarm in Anduruna.

25 Apsû did not diminish their clamour,

26 And Tia-mat was silent when confronted with them.

27 Their conduct was displeasing to her,

28 Yet though their behaviour was not good, she wished to spare them.

29 Thereupon Apsû, the begetter of the great gods,

30 Called Mummu, his vizier, and addressed him,

31 "Vizier Mummu, who gratifies my pleasure,

32 Come, let us go to Tia-mat!"

33 They went and sat, facing Tia-mat,

34 As they conferred about the gods, their sons.

35 Apsû opened his mouth

36 And addressed Tia-mat

37 "Their behaviour has become displeasing to me

38 And I cannot rest in the day-time or sleep at night.

39 I will destroy and break up their way of life

40 That silence may reign and we may sleep."

41 When Tia-mat heard this

42 She raged and cried out to her spouse,

43 She cried in distress, fuming within herself,

44 She grieved over the (plotted) evil,

45 "How can we destroy what we have given birth to?

46 Though their behaviour causes distress, let us tighten discipline graciously."

47 Mummu spoke up with counsel for Apsû—

48 (As from) a rebellious vizier was the counsel of his Mummu—

49 "Destroy, my father, that lawless way of life,

50 That you may rest in the day-time and sleep by night!"

51 Apsû was pleased with him, his face beamed

52 Because he had plotted evil against the gods, his sons.

53 Mummu put his arms around Apsû's neck,

54 He sat on his knees kissing him.

55 What they plotted in their gathering

56 Was reported to the gods, their sons.

57 The gods heard it and were frantic.

58 They were overcome with silence and sat quietly.

59 Ea, who excels in knowledge, the skilled and learned,

60 Ea, who knows everything, perceived their tricks.

61 He fashioned it and made it to be all-embracing,

62 He executed it skilfully as supreme—his pure incantation.

63 He recited it and set it on the waters,

64 He poured sleep upon him as he was slumbering deeply.

65 He put Apsû to slumber as he poured out sleep,

66 And Mummu, the counsellor, was breathless with agitation.

67 He split (Apsû's) sinews, ripped off his crown,

68 Carried away his aura and put it on himself.

69 He bound Apsû and killed him;

70 Mummu he confined and handled roughly.

71 He set his dwelling upon Apsû,

72 And laid hold on Mummu, keeping the nose-rope in his hand.

73 After Ea had bound and slain his enemies,

74 Had achieved victory over his foes,

75 He rested quietly in his chamber,

76 He called it Apsû, whose shrines he appointed.

77 Then he founded his living-quarters within it,

78 And Ea and Damkina, his wife, sat in splendour.

79 In the chamber of the destinies, the room of the archetypes,

80 The wisest of the wise, the sage of the gods, Be-l was conceived.

81 In Apsû was Marduk born,

82 In pure Apsû was Marduk born.

83 Ea his father begat him,

84 Damkina his mother bore him.

85 He sucked the breasts of goddesses,

86 A nurse reared him and filled him with terror.

87 His figure was well developed, the glance of his eyes was dazzling,

88 His growth was manly, he was mighty from the beginning.

89 Anu, his father's begetter, saw him,

90 He exulted and smiled; his heart filled with joy.

91 Anu rendered him perfect: his divinity was remarkable,

92 And he became very lofty, excelling them in his attributes.

93 His members were incomprehensibly wonderful,

94 Incapable of being grasped with the mind, hard even to look on.

95 Four were his eyes, four his ears,

96 Flame shot forth as he moved his lips.

97 His four ears grew large,

93 And his eyes likewise took in everything.

99 His figure was lofty and superior in comparison with the gods,

100 His limbs were surpassing, his nature was superior.

101 'Mari-utu, Mari-utu,

102 The Son, the Sun-god, the Sun-god of the gods.'

103 He was clothed with the aura of the Ten Gods, so exalted was his strength,

104 The Fifty Dreads were loaded upon him.

105 Anu formed and gave birth to the four winds,

106 He delivered them to him, "My son, let them whirl!"

107 He formed dust and set a hurricane to drive it,

108 He made a wave to bring consternation on Tia-mat.

109 Tia-mat was confounded; day and night she was frantic.

110 The gods took no rest, they . . . . . . .

111 In their minds they plotted evil,

112 And addressed their mother Tia-mat,

113 "When Apsû, your spouse, was killed,

114 You did not go at his side, but sat quietly.

115 The four dreadful winds have been fashioned

116 To throw you into confusion, and we cannot sleep.

117 You gave no thought to Apsû, your spouse,

113 Nor to Mummu, who is a prisoner. Now you sit alone.

119 Henceforth you will be in frantic consternation!

120 And as for us, who cannot rest, you do not love us!

121 Consider our burden, our eyes are hollow.

122 Break the immovable yoke that we may sleep.

123 Make battle, avenge them!

124 [ . . ] . . . . reduce to nothingness!

125 Tia-mat heard, the speech pleased her,

126 (She said,) "Let us make demons, [as you] have advised."

127 The gods assembled within her.

128 They conceived [evil] against the gods their begetters.

129 They . . . . . and took the side of Tia-mat,

130 Fiercely plotting, unresting by night and day,

131 Lusting for battle, raging, storming,

132 They set up a host to bring about conflict.

133 Mother H(ubur, who forms everything,

134 Supplied irresistible weapons, and gave birth to giant serpents.

135 They had sharp teeth, they were merciless . . . .

136 With poison instead of blood she filled their bodies.

137 She clothed the fearful monsters with dread,

138 She loaded them with an aura and made them godlike.

139 (She said,) "Let their onlooker feebly perish,

140 May they constantly leap forward and never retire."

141 She created the Hydra, the Dragon, the Hairy Hero

142 The Great Demon, the Savage Dog, and the Scorpion-man,

143 Fierce demons, the Fish-man, and the Bull-man,

144 Carriers of merciless weapons, fearless in the face of battle.

145 Her commands were tremendous, not to be resisted.

146 Altogether she made eleven of that kind.

147 Among the gods, her sons, whom she constituted her host,

148 She exalted Qingu, and magnified him among them.

149 The leadership of the army, the direction of the host,

150 The bearing of weapons, campaigning, the mobilization of conflict,

151 The chief executive power of battle, supreme command,

152 She entrusted to him and set him on a throne,

153 "I have cast the spell for you and exalted you in the host of the gods,

154 I have delivered to you the rule of all the gods.

155 You are indeed exalted, my spouse, you are renowned,

156 Let your commands prevail over all the Anunnaki."

157 She gave him the Tablet of Destinies and fastened it to his breast,

158 (Saying) "Your order may not be changed; let the utterance of your mouth be firm."

159 After Qingu was elevated and had acquired the power of Anuship,

160 He decreed the destinies for the gods, her sons:

161 "May the utterance of your mouths subdue the fire-god,

162 May your poison by its accumulation put down aggression."

Tablet II

1 Tia-mat gathered together her creation

2 And organised battle against the gods, her offspring.

3 Henceforth Tia-mat plotted evil because of Apsû

4 It became known to Ea that she had arranged the conflict.

5 Ea heard this matter,

6 He lapsed into silence in his chamber and sat motionless.

7 After he had reflected and his anger had subsided

8 He directed his steps to Anšar his father.

9 He entered the presence of the father of his begetter, Anšar,

10 And related to him all of Tia-mat's plotting.

11 "My father, Tia-mat our mother has conceived a hatred for us,

12 She has established a host in her savage fury.

13 All the gods have turned to her,

14 Even those you (pl.) begat also take her side

15 They . . . . . and took the side of Tia-mat,

16 Fiercely plotting, unresting by night and day,

17 Lusting for battle, raging, storming,

18 They set up a host to bring about conflict.

19 Mother H(ubur, who forms everything,

20 Supplied irresistible weapons, and gave birth to giant serpents.

21 They had sharp teeth, they were merciless.

22 With poison instead of blood she filled their bodies.

23 She clothed the fearful monsters with dread,

24 She loaded them with an aura and made them godlike.

25 (She said,) "Let their onlooker feebly perish,

26 May they constantly leap forward and never retire."

27 She created the Hydra, the Dragon, the Hairy Hero,

28 The Great Demon, the Savage Dog, and the Scorpion-man,

29 Fierce demons, the Fish-man, and the Bull-man,

30 Carriers of merciless weapons, fearless in the face of battle.

31 Her commands were tremendous, not to be resisted.

32 Altogether she made eleven of that kind.

33 Among the gods, her sons, whom she constituted her host,

34 She exalted Qingu and magnified him among them.

35 The leadership of the army, the direction of the host,

36 The bearing of weapons, campaigning, the mobilization of conflict,

37 The chief executive power of battle supreme command,

38 She entrusted to him and set him on a throne.

39 "I have cast the spell for you and exalted you in the host of the gods,

40 I have delivered to you the rule of all the gods.

41 You are indeed exalted, my spouse, you are renowned,

42 Let your commands prevail over all the Anunnaki."

43 She gave him the tablet of Destinies and fastened it to his breast,

44 (Saying) "Your order may not he changed; let the utterance of your mouth be firm."

45 After Qingu was elevated and had acquired the power of Anuship

46 He decreed the destinies for the gods. her sons:

47 "May the utterance of your mouths subdue the fire-god,

48 May your poison by its accumulation put down aggression."

49 Anšar heard; the matter was profoundly disturbing.

50 He cried "Woe!" and bit his lip.

51 His heart was in fury, his mind could not be calmed.

52 Over Ea his son his cry was faltering.

53 "My son, you who provoked the war,

54 Take responsibility for whatever you alone have done!

55 You set out and killed Apsû,

56 And as for Tia-mat, whom you made furious, where is her equal?"

57 The gatherer of counsel, the learned prince,

58 The creator of wisdom, the god Nudimmud

59 With soothing words and calming utterance

60 Gently answered [his] father Anšar

61 "My father, deep mind, who decrees destiny,

62 Who has the power to bring into being and destroy,

63 Anšar, deep mind, who decrees destiny,

64 Who has the power to bring into being and to destroy,

65 I want to say something to you, calm down for me for a moment

66 And consider that I performed a helpful deed.

67 Before I killed Apsû

68 Who could have seen the present situation?

69 Before I quickly made an end of him

70 What were the circumstances were I to destroy him?"

71 Anšar heard, the words pleased him.

72 His heart relaxed to speak to Ea,

73 "My son, your deeds are fitting for a god,

74 You are capable of a fierce, unequalled blow . . [ . . . ]

75 Ea, your deeds are fitting for a god,

76 You are capable of a fierce, unequalled blow . . [ . . . ]

77 Go before Tia-mat and appease her attack,

78 . . [ . . . ] . . . her fury with [your] incantation."

79 He heard the speech of Anšar his father,

80 He took the road to her, proceeded on the route to her.

81 He went, he perceived the tricks of Tia-mat,

82 [He stopped], fell silent, and turned back.

83 [He] entered the presence of august Anšar

84 Penitently addressing him,

85 "[My father], Tia-mat's deeds are too much for me.

86 I perceived her planning, and [my] incantation was not equal (to it).

87 Her strength is mighty, she is full of dread,

88 She is altogether very strong, none can go against her.

89 Her very loud cry did not diminish,

90 [I became afraid] of her cry and turned back.

91 [My father], do not lose hope, send a second person against her.

92 Though a woman's strength is very great, it is not equal to a man's.

93 Disband her cohorts, break up her plans

94 Before she lays her hands on us."

95 Anšar cried out in intense fury,

96 Addressing Anu his son,

97 "Honoured son, hero, warrior,

98 Whose strength is mighty, whose attack is irresistible

99 Hasten and stand before Tia-mat,

100 Appease her rage that her heart may relax

101 If she does not harken to your words,

102 Address to her words of petition that she may be appeased."

103 He heard the speech of Anšar his father,

104 He took the road to her, proceeded on the route to her.

105 Anu went, he perceived the tricks of Tia-mat,

106 He stopped, fell silent, and turned back.

107 He entered the presence of Anšar the father who begat him,

108 Penitently addressing him.

109 "My father, Tia-mat's [deeds] are too much for me.

110 I perceived her planning, but my [incantation] was not [equal] (to it).

111 Her strength is mighty, she is [full] of dread,

112 She is altogether very strong, no one [can go against her].

113 Her very loud noise does not diminish,

114 I became afraid of her cry and turned back.

115 My father, do not lose hope, send another person against her.

116 Though a woman's strength is very great, it is not equal to a man's.

117 Disband her cohorts, break up her plans,

118 Before she lays her hands on us."

119 Anšar lapsed into silence, staring at the ground,

120 He nodded to Ea, shaking his head.

121 The Igigi and all the Anunnaki had assembled,

122 They sat in tight-lipped silence.

123 No god would go to face . . [ . . ]

124 Would go out against Tia-mat . . . . [ . . ]

125 Yet the lord Anšar, the father of the great gods,

126 Was angry in his heart, and did not summon any one.

127 A mighty son, the avenger of his father,

128 He who hastens to war, the warrior Marduk

129 Ea summoned (him) to his private chamber

130 To explain to him his plans.

131 "Marduk, give counsel, listen to your father.

132 You are my son, who gives me pleasure,

133 Go reverently before Anšar,

134 Speak, take your stand, appease him with your glance."

135 Be-l rejoiced at his father's words,

136 He drew near and stood in the presence of Anšar.

137 Anšar saw him, his heart filled with satisfaction,

138 He kissed his lips and removed his fear.

139 "My [father] do not hold your peace, but speak forth,

140 I will go and fulfil your desires!

141 [Anšar,] do not hold your peace, but speak forth,

142 I will go and fulfil your desires!

143 Which man has drawn up his battle array against you?

144 And will Tia-mat, who is a woman, attack you with (her) weapons?

145 ["My father], begetter, rejoice and be glad,

146 Soon you will tread on the neck of Tia-mat!

147 [Anšar], begetter, rejoice and be glad,

148 Soon you will tread on the neck of Tia-mat!

149 ["Go,] my son, conversant with all knowledge,

150 Appease Tia-mat with your pure spell.

151 Drive the storm chariot without delay,

152 And with a [ . . ] which cannot be repelled turn her back."

153 Be-l rejoiced at his father's words,

154 With glad heart he addressed his father,

155 "Lord of the gods, Destiny of the great gods,

156 If I should become your avenger,

157 If I should bind Tia-mat and preserve you,

158 Convene an assembly and proclaim for me an exalted destiny.

159 Sit, all of you, in Upšukkinakku with gladness,

160 And let me, with my utterance, decree destinies instead of you.

161 Whatever I instigate must not be changed,

162 Nor may my command be nullified or altered."

Tablet III

1 Anšar opened his mouth

2 And addressed Kaka, his vizier,

3 "Vizier Kaka, who gratifies my pleasure,

4 I will send you to Lah(mu and Lah(amu.

5 You are skilled in making inquiry, learned in address.

6 Have the gods, my fathers, brought to my presence.

7 Let all the gods be brought,

8 Let them confer as they sit at table.

9 Let them eat grain, let them drink ale,

10 Let them decree the destiny for Marduk their avenger.

11 Go, be gone, Kaka, stand before them,

12 And repeat to them all that I tell you:

13 "Anšar, your son, has sent me,

14 And I am to explain his plans.

15-52 = II, 11*-48 (* instead of 'My father,' put ' 'Thus,' )

53 I sent Anu, but he could not face her.

54 Nudimmud took fright and retired.

55 Marduk, the sage of the gods, your son, has come forward,

56 He has determined to meet Tia-mat.

57 He has spoken to me and said,

58-64 = II, 156*-162 (* begin with quotation marks: "If )

65 Quickly, now, decree your destiny for him without delay,

66 That he may go and face your powerful enemy."

67 Kaka went. He directed his steps

68 To Lah(mu and Lah(amu, the gods his fathers.

69 He prostrated himself, he kissed the ground before them,

70 He got up, saying to them he stood,

71-124 = II, 13-66

125 When Lah(h(a and Lah(amu heard, they cried aloud.

126 All the Igigi moaned in distress,

127 "What has gone wrong that she took this decision about us?

128 We did not know what Tia-mat was doing."

129 All the great gods who decree destinies

130 Gathered as they went,

131 They entered the presence of Anšar and became filled with [joy],

132 They kissed one another as they . [ . . ] in the assembly.

133 They conferred as they sat at table,

134 They ate grain, they drank ale.

135 They strained the sweet liquor through their straws,

136 As they drank beer and felt good,

137 They became quite carefree, their mood was merry,

138 And they decreed the fate for Marduk, their avenger.

Tablet IV

1 They set a lordly dais for him

2 And he took his seat before his fathers to receive kingship.

3 (They said,) "You are the most honoured among the great gods,

4 Your destiny is unequalled, your command is like Anu's.

5 Marduk, you are the most honoured among the great gods,

6 Your destiny is unequalled, your command is like Anu's.

7 Henceforth your order will not be annulled,

8 It is in your power to exalt and abase.

9 Your utterance is sure, your command cannot be rebelled against,

10 None of the gods will transgress the line you draw.

11 Shrines for all the gods needs provisioning,

12 That you may be established where their sanctuaries are.

13 You are Marduk, our avenger,

14 We have given you kingship over the sum of the whole universe.

15 Take your seat in the assembly, let your word be exalted,

16 Let your weapons not miss the mark, but may they slay your enemies.

17 Be-l, spare him who trusts in you,

18 But destroy the god who set his mind on evil."

19 They set a constellation in the middle

20 And addressed Marduk, their son,

21 "Your destiny, Be-l, is superior to that of all the gods,

22 Command and bring about annihilation and re-creation.

23 Let the constellation disappear at your utterance,

24 With a second command let the constellation reappear."

25 He gave the command and the constellation disappeared,

26 With a second command the constellation came into being again.

27 When the gods, his fathers, saw (the effect of) his utterance,

28 They rejoiced and offered congratulation: "Marduk is the king!"

29 They added to him a mace, a throne, and a rod,

30 They gave him an irresistible weapon that overwhelms the foe:

31 (They said,) "Go, cut Tia-mat's throat,

32 And let the winds bear up her blood to give the news."

33 The gods, his fathers, decreed the destiny of Be-l,

34 And set him on the road, the way of prosperity and success.

35 He fashioned a bow and made it his weapon,

36 He set an arrow in place, put the bow string on.

37 He took up his club and held it in his right hand,

38 His bow and quiver he hung at his side.

39 He placed lightning before him,

40 And filled his body with tongues of flame.

41 He made a net to enmesh the entrails of Tia-mat,

42 And stationed the four winds that no part of her escape.

43 The South Wind, the North Wind, the East Wind, the West Wind,

44 He put beside his net, winds given by his father, Anu.

45 He fashioned the Evil Wind, the Dust Storm, Tempest,

46 The Four-fold Wind, the Seven-fold Wind, the Chaos-spreading Wind, the . . . . .Wind.

47 He sent out the seven winds that he had fashioned,

48 And they took their stand behind him to harass Tia-mat's entrails.

49 Be-l took up the Storm-flood, his great weapon,

50 He rode the fearful chariot of the irresistible storm.

51 Four steeds he yoked to it and harnessed them to it,

52 The Destroyer, The Merciless, The Trampler, The Fleet.

53 Their lips were parted, their teeth bore venom,

54 They were strangers to weariness, trained to sweep forward.

55 At his right hand he stationed raging battle and strife,

56 On the left, conflict that overwhelms a united battle array.

57 He was clad in a tunic, a fearful coat of mail,

58 And on has head he wore an aura of terror.

59 Be-l proceeded and set out on his way,

60 He set his face toward the raging Tia-mat.

61 In his lips he held a spell,

62 He grasped a plant to counter poison in his hand,

63 Thereupon they milled around him, the gods milled around him,

64 The gods, his fathers, milled around him, the gods milled around him.

65 Be-l drew near, surveying the maw of Tia-mat,

66 He observed the tricks of Qingu, her spouse.

67 As he looked, he lost his nerve,

68 His determination went and he faltered.

69 His divine aides, who were marching at his side,

70 Saw the warrior, the foremost, and their vision became dim.

71 Tia-mat cast her spell without turning her neck,

72 In her lips she held untruth and lies,

73 "[ . ] . . . . . . . . . . . . .

74 In their [ . ] . they have assembled by you."

75 Be-l [lifted up] the Storm-flood, his great weapon,

76 And with these words threw it at the raging Tia-mat,

77 "Why are you aggressive and arrogant,

78 And strive to provoke battle?

79 The younger generation have shouted, outraging their elders,

80 But you, their mother, hold pity in contempt.

81 Qingu you have named to be your spouse,

82 And you have improperly appointed him to the rank of Anuship.

83 Against Anšar, king of the gods, you have stirred up trouble,

84 And against the gods, my fathers, your trouble is established.

85 Deploy your troops, gird on your weapons,

86 You and I will take our stand and do battle."

87 When Tia-mat heard this

88 She went insane and lost her reason.

89 Tia-mat cried aloud and fiercely,

90 All her lower members trembled beneath her.

91 She was reciting an incantation, kept reciting her spell,

92 While the (battle-)gods were sharpening their weapons of war.

93 Tia-mat and Marduk, the sage of the gods, came together,

94 Joining in strife, drawing near to battle.

95 Be-l spread out his net and enmeshed her;

96 He let loose the Evil Wind, the rear guard, in her face.

97 Tia-mat opened her mouth to swallow it,

98 She let the Evil Wind in so that she could not close her lips.

99 The fierce winds weighed down her belly,

100 Her inwards were distended and she opened her mouth wide.

101 He let fly an arrow and pierced her belly,

102 He tore open her entrails and slit her inwards,

103 He bound her and extinguished her life,

104 He threw down her corpse and stood on it.

105 After he had killed Tia-mat, the leader,

106 Her assembly dispersed, her host scattered.

107 Her divine aides, who went beside her,

108 In trembling and fear beat a retreat.

109 . . . . to save their lives,

110 But they were completely surrounded, unable to escape.

111 He bound them and broke their weapons,

112 And they lay enmeshed, sitting in a snare,

113 Hiding in corners, filled with grief,

114 Bearing his punishment, held in a prison.

115 The eleven creatures who were laden with fearfulness,

116 The throng of devils who went as grooms at her right hand,

117 He put ropes upon them and bound their arms,

118 Together with their warfare he trampled them beneath him.

119 Now Qingu, who had risen to power among them,

120 He bound and reckoned with the Dead Gods.

121 He took from him the Tablet of Destinies, which was not properly his,

122 Sealed it with a seal and fastened it to his own breast.

123 After the warrior Marduk had bound and slain his enemies,

124 Had . . . . the arrogant enemy . . . ,

125 Had established victory for Anšar over all his foes,

126 Had fulfilled the desire of Nudimmud,

127 He strengthened his hold on the Bound Gods,

128 And returned to Tia-mat, whom he had bound.

129 Be-l placed his feet on the lower parts of Tia-mat

130 And with his merciless club smashed her skull.

131 He severed her arteries

132 And let the North wind bear up (her blood) to give the news.

133 His fathers saw it and were glad and exulted;

134 They brought gifts and presents to him.

135 Be-l rested, surveying the corpse,

136 In order to divide the lump by a clever scheme.

137 He split her into two like a dried fish:

138 One half of her he set up and stretched out as the heavens.

139 He stretched the skin and appointed a watch

140 With the instruction not to let her waters escape.

141 He crossed over the heavens, surveyed the celestial parts,

142 And adjusted them to match the Apsû, Nudimmud's abode.

143 Be-l measured the shape of the Apsû

144 And set up Ešarra, a replica of Ešgalla.

145 In Ešgalla, Ešarra which he had built, and the heavens,

146 He settled in their shrines Anu, Enlil, and Ea.

Tablet V

1 He fashioned heavenly stations for the great gods,

2 And set up constellations, the patterns of the stars.

3 He appointed the year, marked off divisions,

4 And set up three stars each for the twelve months.

5 After he had organized the year,

6 He established the heavenly station of Ne-beru to fix the stars' intervals.

7 That none should transgress or be slothful

8 He fixed the heavenly stations of Enlil and Ea with it.

9 Gates he opened on both sides,

10 And put strong bolts at the left and the right.

11 He placed the heights (of heaven) in her (Tia-mat's) belly,

12 He created Nannar, entrusting to him the night.

13 He appointed him as the jewel of the night to fix the days,

14 And month by month without ceasing he elevated him with a crown,

15 (Saying,) "Shine over the land at the beginning of the month,

16 Resplendent with horns to fix six days.

17 On the seventh day the crown will be half size,

18 On the fifteenth day, halfway through each month, stand in opposition.

19 When Šamaš [sees] you on the horizon,

20 Diminish in the proper stages and shine backwards.

21 On the 29th day, draw near to the path of Šamaš,

22 . [ . . ] the 30th day, stand in conjunction and rival Šamaš.

23 I have ( . . . . ] . the sign, follow its track,

24 Draw near . . ( . . . . . ) give judgment.

25 . [ . . . . ] . Šamaš, constrain [murder] and violence,

26 . [ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ] . me.

* * * * * *

35 At the end [ . . .

36 Let there [be] the 29th day [ . . . "

37 After [he had . . . . ] the decrees [ . . .

38 The organization of front and . [ . . .

39 He made the day [ . . .

40 Let the year be equally [ . . .

41 At the new year [ . . .

42 The year . . . . . [ . . .

43 Let there be regularly [ . . .

44 The projecting bolt [ . . .

45 After he had [ . . .

46 The watches of night and day [ . . .

47 The foam which Tia-mat [ . . .

48 Marduk fashioned [ . . .

49 He gathered it together and made it into clouds.

50 The raging of the winds, violent rainstorms,

51 The billowing of mist—the accumulation of her spittle—

52 He appointed for himself and took them in his hand.

53 He put her head in position and poured out . . [ . . ] .

54 He opened the abyss and it was sated with water.

55 From her two eyes he let the Euphrates and Tigris flow,

56 He blocked her nostrils, but left . .

57 He heaped up the distant [mountains] on her breasts,

58 He bored wells to channel the springs.

59 He twisted her tail and wove it into the Durmah(u,

60 [ . . . ] . . the Apsû beneath his feet.

61 [He set up] her crotch—it wedged up the heavens—

62 [(Thus) the half of her] he stretched out and made it firm as the earth.

63 [After] he had finished his work inside Tia-mat,

64 [He spread] his net and let it right out.

65 He surveyed the heavens and the earth . . [ . ] .

66 [ . . ] their bonds . . . . . . .

67 After he had formulated his regulations and composed [his] decrees,

68 He attached guide-ropes and put them in Ea's hands.

69 [The Tablet] of Destinies which Qingu had taken and carried,

70 He took charge of it as a trophy (?) and presented it to Anu.

71 [The . ] . of battle, which he had tied on or had put on his head,

72 [ . ] . he brought before his fathers.

73 [Now] the eleven creatures to which Tia-mat had given birth and . . . ,

74 He broke their weapons and bound them (the creatures) to his feet.

75 He made images of them and stationed them at the [Gate] of the Apsû,

76 To be a sign never to be forgotten.

77 [The gods] saw it and were jubilantly happy,

78 (That is,) Lah(mu, Lah(amu and all his fathers.

79 Anšar [embraced] him and published abroad his title, "Victorious King,"

80 Anu, Enlil and Ea gave him gifts.

81 Mother Damkina, who bore him, hailed him,

82 With a clean festal robe she made his face shine.

83 To Usmû, who held her present to give the news,

84 [He entrusted] the vizierate of the Apsû and the care of the holy places.

85 The Igigi assembled and all did obeisance to him,

86 Every one of the Anunnaki was kissing his feet.

87 They all [gathered] to show their submission,

88 [ . . . ] . they stood, they bowed down, "Behold the king!"

89 His fathers [ . . . ] . and took their fill of his beauty,

90 Be-l listened to their utterance, being girded with the dust of battle.

91 . [ . . . . . . . . . . . . ] . . . . . . .

92 Anointing his body with . [ . . . ] cedar perfume.

93 He clothed himself in [his] lordly robe,

94 With a crown of terror as a royal aura.

95 He took up his club and held it in his right hand,

96 . . . ] . he grasped in his left.

97 [ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ]

98 . . . ] . he set his feet.

99 He put upon . [ . . .

100 The sceptre of prosperity and success [he hung] at his side.

101 After [he had . . . ] the aura [

102 He adorned(?) his sack, the Apsû, with a fearful [ . . ]

103 Was settled like . [ . . .

104 In [his] throne room [ . . .

105 In his cella [ . . .

106 Every one of the gods [ . . .

107 Lah(mu and Lah(amu . [ . . . . . . . ] .

108 Opened their mouths and [addressed] the Igigi gods,

109 "Previously Marduk was our beloved son,

110 Now he is your king, heed his command!"

111 Next, they all spoke up together,

112 "His name is Lugaldimmerankia, trust in him!"

113 When they had given kingship to Marduk,

114 They addressed to him a benediction for prosperity and success,

115 "Henceforth you are the caretaker of our shrine,

116 Whatever you command, we will do!"

117 Marduk opened his mouth to speak

118 And addressed the gods his fathers,

119 "Above the Apsû, the emerald (?) abode,

120 Opposite Ešarra, which I built for you,

121 Beneath the celestial parts, whose floor I made firm,

122 I will build a house to be my luxurious abode.

123 Within it I will establish its shrine,

124 I will found my chamber and establish my kingship.

125 When you come up from the Apsû to make a decision

126 This will be your resting place before the assembly.

127 When you descend from heaven to make a decision

128 This will be your resting place before the assembly.

129 I shall call its name 'Babylon', "The Homes of the Great Gods",

130 Within it we will hold a festival: that will be the evening festival.

131 [The gods], his fathers, [heard] this speech of his,

132 . [ . . . . . . . . . . . . ] . they said,

133 "With regard to all that your hands have made,

134 Who has your [ . . . ]?

135 With regard to the earth that your hands have made,

136 Who has your [ . . . ]?

137 In Babylon, as you have named it,

138 Put our [resting place] for ever.

139 . [ . . . . . . . . . ] let them our bring regular offerings

140 . [ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ] . .

141 Whoever [ . . . ] our tasks which we . [ . . .

142 Therein [ . . . . . ] its toil . [ . . .

143 [ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ]

144 They rejoiced [ . . . . . . . . . . . ] . . [ . . .

145 The gods . [ . . . . . . . . . . . . . ]

146 He who knows [ . . . . . . . . . ] . them

147 He opened [his mouth showing] them light,

148 . . [ . . . . . . . . . ] his speech . [ . ]

149 He made wide [ . . . . . . . . ] . them [ . . .

150 And . [ . . . . . . . . . . . . ] . . . . .

151 The gods bowed down, speaking to him,

152 They addressed Lugaldimmerankia, their lord,

153 "Formerly, lord, [you were our beloved] son,

154 Now you are our king, . . [ . . . ]

155 He who . [ . ] . [ . ] preserved [us]

156 . . [. . . ] the aura of club and sceptre.

157 Let him conceive plans [ . . . . ] . . [ . . . ]

158 [ . ] . . [ . . . . . . that] we . [ . . ."

Tablet VI

1 When Marduk heard the gods' speech

2 He conceived a desire to accomplish clever things.

3 He opened his mouth addressing Ea,

4 He counsels that which he had pondered in his heart,

5 "I will bring together blood to form bone,

6 I will bring into being Lullû, whose name shall be 'man'.

7 I will create Lullû—man

8 On whom the toil of the gods will be laid that they may rest.

9 I will skilfully alter the organization of the gods:

10 Though they are honoured as one, they shall be divided into two."

11 Ea answered, as he addressed a word to him,

12 Expressing his comments on the resting of the gods,

13 "Let one brother of theirs be given up.

14 Let him perish that people may be fashioned.

15 Let the great gods assemble

16 And let the guilty one be given up that they may be confirmed."

17 Marduk assembled the great gods,

18 Using gracious direction as he gave his order,

19 As he spoke the gods heeded him:

20 The king addressed a word to the Anunnaki,

21 "Your former oath was true indeed,

22 (Now also) tell me the solemn truth:

23 Who is the one who instigated warfare,

24 Who made Tia-mat rebel, and set battle in motion?

25 Let him who instigated warfare be given up

26 That I may lay his punishment on him; but you sit and rest.

27 The Igigi, the great gods, answered him,

28 That is, Lugaldimmerankia, the counsellor of the gods, the lord,

29 "Qingu is the one who instigated warfare,

30 Who made Tia-mat rebel and set battle in motion."

31 They bound him, holding him before Ea,

32 They inflicted the penalty on him and severed his blood-vessels.

33 From his blood he (Ea) created mankind,

34 On whom he imposed the service of the gods, and set the gods free.

35 After the wise Ea had created mankind

36 And had imposed the service of the gods upon them—

37 That task is beyond comprehension

38 For Nudimmud performed the creation with the skill of Marduk—

39 King Marduk divided the gods,

40 All the Anunnaki into upper and lower groups.

41 He assigned 300 in the heavens to guard the decrees of Anu

42 And appointed them as a guard.

43 Next he arranged the organization of the netherworld.

44 In heaven and netherworld he stationed 600 gods.

45 After he had arranged all the decrees,

46 And had distributed incomes among the Anunnaki of heaven and netherworld,

47 The Anunnaki opened their mouths

48 And addressed their lord Marduk,

49 "Now, lord, seeing you have established our freedom

50 What favour can we do for you?

51 Let us make a shrine of great renown:

52 Your chamber will be our resting place wherein we may repose.

53 Let us erect a shrine to house a pedestal

54 Wherein we may repose when we finish (the work)."

55 When Marduk heard this,

56 He beamed as brightly as the light of day,

57 "Build Babylon, the task you have sought.

58 Let bricks for it be moulded, and raise the shrine!"

59 The Anunnaki wielded the pick.

60 For one year they made the needed bricks.

61 When the second year arrived,

62 They raised the peak of Esagil, a replica of the Apsû.

63 They built the lofty temple tower of the Apsû

64 And for Anu, Enlil, and Ea they established its . . as a dwelling.

65 He sat in splendour before them,

66 Suveying its horns, which were level with the base of Ešarra.

67 After they had completed the work on Esagil

68 All the Anunnaki constructed their own shrines.

69 300 Igigi of heaven and 600 of the Apsû, all of them, had assembled.

70 Be-l seated the gods, his fathers, at the banquet

71 In the lofty shrine which they had built for his dwelling,

72 (Saying,) "This is Babylon, your fixed dwelling,

73 Take your pleasure here! Sit down in joy!

74 The great gods sat down,

75 Beer-mugs were set out and they sat at the banquet.

76 After they had enjoyed themselves inside

77 They held a service in awesome Esagil.

78 The regulations and all the rules were confirmed:

79 All the gods divided the stations of heaven and netherwor1d.

80 The college of the Fifty great gods took their seats,

81 The Seven gods of destinies were appointed to give decisions.

82 Be-l received his weapon, the bow, and laid it before them:

83 His divine fathers saw the net which he had made.

84 His fathers saw how skilfully wrought was the structure of the bow

85 As they praised what he had made.

86 Anu lifted it up in the divine assembly,

87 He kissed the bow, saying, "It is my daughter!"

88 Thus he called the names of the bow:

89 "Long Stick" was the first; the second was, "May it hit the mark."

90 With the third name, "Bow Star", he made it to shine in the sky,

91 He fixed its heavenly position along with its divine brothers.

92 After Anu had decreed the destiny of the bow,

93 He set down a royal throne, a lofty one even for a god,

94 Anu set it there in the assembly of the gods.

95 The great gods assembled,

96 They exalted the destiny of Marduk and did obeisance.

97 They invoked a curse on themselves

98 And took an oath with water and oil, and put their hands to their throats.

99 They granted him the right to exercise kingship over the gods,

100 They confirmed him as lord of the gods of heaven and netherworld.

101 Anšar gave him his exalted name, Asalluh(i

102 "At the mention of his name, let us show submission!

103 When he speaks, let the gods heed him,

104 Let his command be superior in upper and lower regions.

105 May the son, our avenger, be exalted,

106 Let his lordship be superior and himself without rival.

107 Let him shepherd the black-heads, his creatures,

108 Let them tell of his character to future days without forgetting.

109 Let him establish lavish food offerings for his fathers,

110 Let him provide for their maintenance and be caretaker of their sanctuaries,

111 Let him burn incense to rejoice their sanctums.

112 Let him do on earth the same as he has done in heaven:

113 Let him appoint the black-heads to worship him.

114 The subject humans should take note and call on their gods,

115 Since he commands they should heed their goddesses,

116 Let food offerings be brought [for] (?) their gods and goddesses,

117 May they (?) not be forgotten, may they remember their gods,

118 May they . . . their . . , may they . . their shrines.

119 Though the black-heads worship some one, some another god,

120 He is the god of each and every one of us!

121 Come, let us call the fifty names

122 Of him whose character is resplendent, whose achievement is the same.

123 (1) MARDUK

As he was named by his father Anu from his birth,

124 Who supplies pasturage and watering, making the stables flourish.

125 Who bound the boastful with his weapon, the storm flood,

126 And saved the gods, his fathers, from distress.

127 He is the son, the sun-god of the gods, he is dazzling,

128 Let them ever walk in his bright light.

129 On the peoples that he created, the living beings,

130 He imposed the service of the gods and they took rest.

131 Creation and annihilation, forgiveness and exacting the penalty

132 Occur at his command, so let them fix their eyes on him.

133 (2) Marukka: he is the god who created them

134 Who put the Anunnaki at ease, the Igigi at rest.

135 (3) Marutukku: he is the support of land, city, and its peoples,

136 Henceforth let the peoples ever heed him.

137 (4) Meršakušu: fierce yet deliberating, angry yet relenting,

138 His mind is wide, his heart is all-embracing.

139 (5) Lugaldimmerankia is the name by which we all called him,

140 Whose command we have exalted above that of the gods his fathers.

141 He is the lord of all the gods of heaven and netherworld,

142 The king at whose injunctions the gods in upper and lower regions shudder.

143 (6) Narilugaldimmerankia is the name we gave him, the mentor of every god,

144 Who established our dwellings in heaven and netherworld in time of trouble,

145 Who distributed the heavenly stations between Igigi and Anunnaki,

146 Let the gods tremble at his name and quake on their seats.

147 (7) Asalluh(i is the name by which his father Anu called him,

148 He is the light of the gods, a mighty hero,

149 Who, as his name says, is a protecting angel for god and land,

150 Who by a terrible combat saved our dwelling in time of trouble.

151 (8) Asalluh(i-Namtilla they called him secondly, the life-giving god,

152 Who, in accordance with the form (of) his (name), restored all the ruined gods,

153 The lord, who brought to life the dead gods by his pure incantation,

154 Let us praise him as the destroyer of the crooked enemies.

155 (9) Asalluh(i-Namru, as his name is called thirdly,

156 The pure god, who cleanses our character."

157 Anšar, Lah(mu, and Lah(amu (each) called him by three of his names,

158 Then they addressed the gods, their sons,

159 "We have each called him by three of his names,

160 Now you call his names, like us."

161 The gods rejoiced as they heard their speech,

162 In Upšuukkinaki they held a conference,

163 "Of the warrior son, our avenger,

164 Of the provisioner, let us extol the name."

165 They sat down in their assembly, summoning the destinies,

166 And with all due rites they called his name:

Tablet VII

1 (10)Asarre, the giver of arable land who established plough-land,

2 The creator of barley and flax, who made plant life grow.

3 (11)Asaralim, who is revered in the counsel chamber, whose counsel excels,

4 The gods heed it and grasp fear of him.

5 (12)Asaralimnunna, the noble, the light of the father, his begetter,

6 Who directs the decrees of Anu, Enlil, and Ea, that is Ninšiku.

7 He is their provisioner, who assigns their incomes,

8 Whose turban multiplies abundance for the land.

9 (13) Tutu is he, who accomplishes their renovation,

10 Let him purify their sanctuaries that they may repose.

11 Let him fashion an incantation that the gods may rest,

12 Though they rise up in fury, let them withdraw.

13 He is indeed exalted in the assembly of the gods, his [fathers],

14 No one among the gods can [equal] him.

15 (14) Tutu-Ziukkinna, the life of [his] host,

16 Who established, the pure heavens for the gods,

17 Who took charge of their courses, who appointed [their stations],

16 May he not be forgotten among mortals, but [let them remember] his deeds.

19 (15) Tutu-Ziku they called him thirdly, the establisher of purification,

20 The god of the pleasant breeze, lord of success and obedience,

21 Who produces bounty and wealth, who establishes abundance,

22 Who turns everything scant that we have into profusion,

23 Whose pleasant breeze we sniffed in time of terrible trouble,

24 Let men command that his praises be constantly uttered, let them offer worship to

him.

25 As (16) Tutu-Agaku, fourthly, let humans extol him,

26 Lord of the pure incantation, who brought the dead back to life,

27 Who showed mercy on the Bound Gods,

28 Who threw the imposed yoke on the gods, his enemies,

29 And to spare them created mankind.

30 The merciful, in whose power it is to restore to life,

31 Let his words be sure and not forgotten

32 From the mouths of the black-heads, his creatures.

33 As (17) Tutu-Tuku, fifthly, let their mouth give expression to his pure spell,

34 Who extirpated all the wicked by his pure incantation.

35 (18) Šazu, who knew the heart of the gods, who saw the reins,

36 Who did not let an evil-doer escape from him,

37 Who established the assembly of the gods, who rejoiced their hearts,

38 Who subjugated the disobedient, he is the gods' encompassing protection.

39 He made truth to prosper, he uprooted perverse speech,

40 He separated falsehood from truth.

41 As (19) Šazu-Zisi, secondly, let them continually praise him, the subduer of aggressors,

42 Who ousted consternation of from the bodies of the gods, his fathers.

43 (20) Šazu-Suh(rim, thirdly, who extirpated every foe with his weapons,

44 Who confounded their plans and turned them into wind.

45 He snuffed out all the wicked who came against him,

46 Let the gods ever shout acclamations in the assembly.

47 (21) Šazu-Suh(gurim, fourthly, who established success for the gods, his fathers,

48 Who extirpated foes and destroyed their offspring,

49 Who scattered their achievements, leaving no part of them,

50 Let his name be spoken and proclaimed in the land.

51 As (22) Šazu-Zah(rim, fifthly, let future gererations discuss him,

52 The destroyer of every rebel, of all the disobedient,

53 Who brought all the fugitive gods into the shrines,

54 Let this name of his be established.

55 As (23) Šazu-Zah(gurim, sixthly, let them altogether and everywhere worship him,

56 Who himself destroyed all the foes in battle.

57 (24) Enbilulu is he, the lord who supplies them abundantly,

58 Their great chosen one, who provides cereal offerings,

59 Who keeps pasturage and watering in good condition and established it for the land,

60 Who opened watercourses and distributed plentiful water.

61 (25) Enbilulu-Epadun, lord of common land and . . ., let them [call him] secondly,

62 Canal supervisor of heaven and netherworld, who sets the furrow,

Who establishes clean arable land in the open country,

63 Who directs irrigation ditch and canal, and marks out the furrow.

64 As (26) Enbilulu-Gugal, canal supervisor of the water courses of the gods, let them praise him thirdly,

65 Lord of abundance, profusion, and huge stores (of grain),

66 Who provides bounty, who enriches human habitations,

67 Who gives wheat, and brings grain into being.

68 (27) Enbilulu-H(egal, who accumulates abundance for the peoples . . . .

69 Who rains down riches on the broad earth, and supplies abundant vegetation.

70 (28) Sirsir, who heaped up a mountain on top of Tia-mat,

71 Who plundered the corpse of Tia-mat with [his] weapons,

72 The guardian of the land, their trustworthy shepherd,

73 Whose hair is a growing crop, whose turban is a furrow,

74 Who kept crossing the broad Sea in his fury,

75 And kept crossing over the place of her battle as though it were a bridge.

76 (29) Sirsir-Malah( they named him secondly—so be it—

77 Tia-mat was his boat, he was her sailor.

78 (30) Gil, who ever heaps up piles of barley, massive mounds,

79 The creator of grain and flocks, who gives seed for the land.

80 (31) Gilima, who made the bond of the gods firm, who created stability,

81 A snare that overwhelmed them, who yet extended favours.

82 (32) Agilima, the lofty, who snatches off the crown, who takes charge of snow,

83 Who created the earth on the water and made firm the height of heaven.

84 (33) Zulum, who assigns meadows for the gods and divides up what he has created,

85 Who gives incomes and food-offerings, who administers shrines.

86 (34) Mummu, creator of heaven end underworld, who protects refugees,

87 The god who purifies heaven and underworld, secondly Zulummu,

88 In respect of whose strength none other among the gods can equal him.

89 (35) Gišnumunab, creator of all the peoples, who made the world regions,

90 Who destroyed Tia-mat's gods, and made peoples from part of them.

91 (36) Lugalabdubur, the king who scattered the works of Tia-mat, who uprooted her weapons,

92 Whose foundation is secure on the "Fore and Aft".

93 (37) Pagalguenna, foremost of all lords, whose strength is exalted,

94 Who is the greatest among the gods, his brothers, the most noble of them all.

95 (38) Lugaldurmah(, king of the bond of the gods, lord of Durmah(u,

96 Who is the greatest in the royal abode, infinitely more lofty than the other gods.

97 (39) Aranunna, counsellor of Ea, creator of the gods, his fathers,

98 Whom no god can equal in respect of his lordly walk.

99 (40) Dumuduku, who renews for himself his pure abode in Duku,

100 Dumuduku, without whom Lugalduku does not make a decision.

101 (41) Lugalšuanna, the king whose strength is exalted among the gods,

102 The lord, the strength of Anu, he who is supreme, chosen of Anšar.

103 (42) Irugga, who plundered them all in the Sea,

104 Who grasps all wisdom, is comprehensive in understanding.

105 (43) Irqingu, who plundered Qingu in . . . battle,

106 Who directs all decrees and establishes lordship.

107 (44) Kinma, the director of all the gods, who gives counsel,

108 At whose name the gods bend down in reverence as before a hurricane.

109 (45) Dingir-Esiskur—let him take his lofty seat in the House of Benediction,

110 Let the gods bring their presents before him

111 Until he receives their offerings.

112 No one but he accomplishes clever things

113 The four (regions) of black-heads are his creation,

114 Apart from him no god knows the measure of their days.

115 (46) Girru, who makes weapons hard (?),

116 Who accomplished clever things in the battle with Tia-mat,

117 Comprehensive in wisdom, skilled in understanding,

118 A deep mind, that all the gods combined do not understand.

119 Let (47) Addu be his name, let him cover the whole span of heaven,

120 Let him thunder with his pleasant voice upon the earth,

121 May the rumble fill (?) the clouds

And give sustenance to the peoples below.

122 (48) Aša-ru, who, as his name says, mustered the Divine Fates

123 He indeed is the warden of absolutely all peoples.

124 As (49) Ne-beru let him hold the crossing place of heaven and underworld,

125 They should not cross above or below, but should wait for him.

126 Ne-beru is his star, which he caused to shine in the sky,

127 Let him take his stand on the heavenly staircase that they may look at him.

128 Yes, he who constantly crosses the Sea without resting,

129 Let his name be Ne-beru, who grasps her middle,

130 Let him fix the paths of the stars of heaven,

131 Let him shepherd all the gods like sheep,

132 Let him bind Tia-mat and put her life in mortal danger,

133 To generations yet unborn, to distant future days,

134 May he continue unchecked, may he persist into eternity.

135 Since he created the heavens and fashioned the earth,

136 Enlil, the father, called him by his own name, (50) 'Lord of the Lands'.

137 Ea heard the names which all the Igigi called

138 And his spirit became radiant.

139 "Why! He whose name was extolled by his fathers

140 Let him, like me, be called (51) 'Ea'.

141 Let him control the sum of all my rites,

142 Let him administer all my decrees."

143 With the word "Fifty" the great gods

144 Called his fifty names and assigned him an outstanding position.

145 They should be remembered; a leading figure should expound them,

146 The wise and learned should confer about them,

147 A father should repeat them and teach them to his son,

148 One should explain them to shepherd and herdsman.

149 If one is not negligent to Marduk, the Enlil of the gods,

150 May one's land flourish, and oneself prosper,

151 (For) his word is reliable, his command unchanged,

152 No god can alter the utterance of his mouth.

153 When he looks in fury, he does not relent,

154 When his anger is ablaze, no god can face him.

155 His mind is deep, his spirit is all-embracing,

156 Before whom sin and transgression are sought out.

157 Instruction which a leading figure repeated before him (Marduk):

158 He wrote it down and stored it so that generations to come might hear it.

159 [ . . ] . Marduk, who created the Igigi gods,

160 Though they diminish . . . let them call on his name.

161 . . . the song of Marduk,

162 Who defeated Tia-mat and took kingship