Traditional and contemporary management practices
Figure 38 : Diver attaching new kelp plant.
Source : John Turnbull www.marineexplorer.org
Traditional and contemporary management practices
Kelp forests have been used by many cultures across the world for thousands of years.
Kelp forests need to be preserved and managed for many reasons, such as,
For their 'intrinsic value' - the value of their existence.
For their high levels of biodiversity.
For their economic value - eg, commercial fishing, crustaceans, tourism. For the dollar value of what this trade is worth, read the Dept of Agriculture report.
For their recreational value - fishing, snorkelling.
They are the dominant species on Australia's largest rocky reef system, and are required for ecosystem functioning.
They are 'ecosystem engineers' that is, they create habitat (food and shelter ) for marine mammals, fish and invertebrates
7. For the important role they play in the global carbon dioxide and oxygen cycles - importantly they oxygenate the water and absorb carbon dioxide. continued...
Figure 39 : Blue groper is a common species found in a healthy kelp forest.
Source : John Turnbull www.marineexplorer.org
8. For the way they recycle nutrients.
9. For the way they trap and stabilise sediments.
10. As they help mitigate storm damage and coastal erosion.
11. For emerging opportunities such as 'Blue Carbon' and as a food source.
(Points adapted from D. Owens Macmillan 2003) .
Read the article in The conversation regarding the importance of the rocky reefs and kelp forests.
Figure 40 : Photo of traditional bull kelp basket
Source : theguardian.com
Traditional Management Practices
The Aboriginal people of coastal Australia have a rich, diverse history dating back 45 000 years or more.
Aboriginal people have an extensive traditional knowledge of natural resources including the use of kelp. Bruce Pascoe in his book Dark Emu describes the traditional use of marine resources such as abalone, crayfish and kelp by Aboriginal people of south eastern Australia.
An investigation by researchers of the archives and writings by early colonisers found that seaweed was used by Indigenous Saltwater Australians for " a variety of purposes including cultural activities, ceremonial activities, medicinal uses, clothing, cultural history, food, fishing, shelter and domestic uses."
A report by the National Oceans Office found that
"Coastal areas of South-east Australia were amongst the most densely populated regions of pre-colonial Australia. These highly populated areas provided an abundance of marine and other resources. Coastal shell middens and the many sacred sites, places and artefacts along the coast are stark reminders of this reliance."
" Indigenous people had a great knowledge and respect for the sea. They could read the wind and the seasons. They harvested on a sustainable basis." and
"Indigenous people have managed the natural resources of the coast of the South-east Marine Region for tens of thousands of years. Because of this, Indigenous people question why current management has not learnt from or integrated traditional Indigenous ways into management systems: Indigenous people are environmentalists – sustainability is part of our culture. If we did not look after resources we would starve."
Organisations now usually consult with Aboriginal communities and include their knowledge, perspectives and skills in the organisation's decision making and approaches.
(See below in Contemporary Management for more information).
Concepts and definitions
"Indigenous Saltwater Australians - are Australian Aboriginal peoples from coastal areas across the nation who are the Traditional Owners/Guardians and custodians of the lands and waters characterised by a saltwater environment." Thurstan et al
Figure 41- 'Sea Country - An Indigenous perspective'
Source: Sea Country - National Oceans Office
Activities
Refer to figure 42 and describe resources in a kelp forest ecosystem that indigenous people traditionally used.
Outline a concept or a technique that traditional aboriginal people used that is still relevant for contemporary managers and users.
Figure 42 - Indigenous use of oceans and marine resources
Source: Sea Country - An Indigenous perspective South East Regional Marine Plan. National Oceans Office, 2002
Contemporary Management Strategies
Management of marine ecosystems has developed to reduce and limit human impacts, threats and modifications so as to support and maintain resilient and sustainable ecosystems.
For example, recent management strategies have been designed to
sustainably manage ocean resources such as fish,
preserve an ecosystem e.g. Solitary Islands,
or reduce the threats to ocean resources eg, sewerage system improvements.
Figure 43 : Swimming above a kelp forest.
Source : John Turnbull www.marineexplorer.org
However, given the threats and impacts of a changing climate, relatively simple actions like cleaning up beach litter or announcing a marine park may not be enough to ensure the future of kelp forests. The temperature of an ocean current cannot be quickly or easily lowered and kelp forests may not be able to naturally adapt to this threat rapidly enough to be resilient.
Scientific research suggests that it is the kelp forests that need to be managed to help preserve the ocean ecosystems. Scientists and organisations have responded with ingenious and inspiring projects so that these forests have a sustainable future.
'The Great southern reef' I YouTube I 3:40
Closed captions
There are many contemporary management strategies for marine ecosystems in existence around the world today.
Seven strategies relevant to the kelp forests of south-east Australia are examined below.
The establishment of the Great Southern Reef (GSR) -
The Great Southern Reef is the name recently developed to describe the network of temperate, coastal rocky reefs which stretch from northern NSW right around to Western Australia. These temperate coastal reefs are dominated by one type of kelp called Ecklonia Radiata (E. radiata). The rocky reefs and kelp forests found right along the GSR support high levels of biodiversity and include animals such as seals, abalone and leafy sea dragons.
Australia's GSR - A Mission Blue Hopespot I YouTube I 2:16 Transcript
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eMQ2bKgACWI
The GSR is not a national park or a reserve, simply a name which helps educators, scientists including CSIRO , governments and the community to think about the rocky reefs and kelp forests as an interconnected ecosystem which requires many organisations and governments to work together to achieve sustainable outcomes.
An environmental organisation known 'Mission Blue' has included the GSR in its global ecosystem and Hopespot program.
Figure 44 : Kelp forest with urchins present
Source : John Turnbull www.marineexplorer.org
2. Restoration and Replanting Projects
A. Some kelp and seaweed forests have disappeared along the south east of Australia due to threats such as wastewater and warmer ocean currents. In response to this, a number of scientific research projects have begun to replant kelp forests.
One of the most successful replanting projects is known as Operation Crayweed, which was supported by the The Sydney Institute of Marine Science (SIMS ). The following description of the project is adapted from the SIMS website.
Crayweed is the name given to the common type of seaweed 'Phyllospora comosa' which grows along the eastern and southern coastlines of Australia. Crayweed forests are significant as they have higher levels of biodiversity and can support more abalone and key fish species than any other kelp or seaweed forest.
In 2008 scientists found that approximately 70 kilometres of kelp and seaweed beds off the Sydney coastline had vanished. Scientists concluded that during the 1980's and 1990's the sewage outfall which was pumped directly from Sydney's wastewater treatment plants onto the coast had caused the death of the seaweed forests. Scientists found that the Crayweed did not grow back, despite the water quality improving after deepwater ocean outfall pipelines were built for sewage waste.
Many of the former underwater areas that were covered in 'Crayweed' became 'urchin barrens'. As the Crayweed disappeared the black urchins moved into these areas and grazed on any plant material and algae, reducing the overall biodiversity and creating a barren area. The black urchins moved into these areas at the same time as the warmer, nutrient poor water from the EAC strengthened.
'Operation Crayweed' is the name given to the restoration project and citizen science program lead by Dr Marzinelli, Dr Campbell and Dr Verges (and others) and supported by SIMS.
The project was designed to re-establish Crayweed on the rocky reefs where it once grew off Sydney's coastline. The project developed and implemented a replanting technique where mature Crayweed plants were taken from healthy kelp/seaweed beds and attached to underwater mesh on rocky reefs off the coast of Sydney, eg, Cabbage Tree Bay. Many sites have now been replanted, often with the help of volunteers and community groups to replant the crayweed.
The project has been largely successful as a number of Crayweed ecosystem communities have been established thus, Crayweed is no longer extinct from Sydney's coast.
B. Another science-led restoration project is hoping to save the giant kelp forests of Tasmania by replanting young kelp in mesh nursery beds off the coast of eastern Tasmania.
The giant kelp forests off Tasmania's north and east coasts have been devastated by the Eastern Australian Current (EAC), which has strengthened and brought warmer and nutrient poor waters to Tasmania.
Along with this threat, black urchins have moved in and overgrazed the remaining kelp to create urchin barrens. A further complication is that the eastern rock lobster and the eastern blue groper which consume urchins are harvested and possibly over-harvested in the waters off Tasmania. This has meant fewer predators exist to eat the harmful urchins.
Another restoration project is happening at Barangaroo in Sydney harbour . Scientists from SIMS have specific shaped designed 'tiles' to attract seaweed and marine life and increase biodiversity.
Figure 45 : Diver attaches a Crayweed plant to underwater rock and mesh.
Source : John Turnbull www.marineexplorer.org
Activities
View the presentation and video http://www.operationcrayweed.com/ and
Watch Ocean Odyssey- Episode three Operation Crayweed episode three - ( from 10.02 -17mins for Crayweed forest restoration).
a. Outline a time line showing the decline and regrowth of Crayweed off the coast of Sydney.
b. Use the information to outline human impacts and ecosystem vulnerability, modification, invasion, and succession in the kelp and seaweed forests off Sydney.
Watch Deep dive into Australia's Ocean Odyssey The interview with the scientists links sections of the ABC documentary 'Ocean Odyssey' to a discussion about kelp forests.
Discuss why replanting crayweed can be considered a management strategy.
Describe the replanting techniques.
Assess the effectiveness of citizen science techniques and education as management strategies.
Read the articles below which discuss the restoration of the Tasmanian kelp forests.
Discuss the human threats which have modified and impacted this ecosystem. Evaluate the success of these operations.
Concepts and definitions
restoration, urchin barren, ecosystem vulnerability, over-harvested, monitoring, environmental protection, management strategy, legislation, government policy, carbon emissions, 'sea country', cultural resource use, aquaculture, carbon sink.
Figure 46 : A rocky reef - Sydney's changing reefs
Source : John Turnbull www.marineexplorer.org
3. Government management strategies - legislation, policy and plans
A. Government legislation
Governments pass laws (called legislation) and develop policy to support these laws. Both the Australian government and state governments have passed laws to conserve and manage marine environments and kelp forests.
For example, in 1999, the Australian government passed a law to protect the Giant kelp marine forest of south east Australia ecological community. The government recognised that the giant kelp forests were in serious decline, especially on the east coast of Tasmania, due to changing ocean currents and ocean temperature conditions.
The remaining giant kelp in eastern Tasmania became protected under the Commonwealth Government's 'Environment Protection and Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999' (EPBC Act ) as a threatened ecological community. The legislation attempts to manage and preserve the kelp forests by allowing sustainable activities in some locations some locations and prohibiting other activities which damage the kelp forests.
In NSW, some examples of legislation which has been passed which help protect and manage marine ecosystems are the
Biodiversity Conservation Act (2016)
Environment Planning and Assessment Act (1979)
The Fisheries Management Act (1994 )
The above legislation allows government departments to impose rules and regulations on activities such as fishing and on developments e.g. wharves, jetties, fish farms.
The Biodiversity Conservation Act (2016) includes the important Saving our Species program which brings together government, business, scientists and the community to help save threatened species and threatened ecological communities.
The Fisheries Management Act (1994) attempts to manage the threats to marine ecosystems with a number of strategies including the use of a permit system to restrict some activities, eg, the collection of kelp.
Read what the NSW Department of Primary Industries (DPI) says about the issue of permits.
B. Government policy eg, National parks and reserves along the south east coast of Australia
The NSW government through the National Parks and Wildlife Service (NPWS) has developed a system of national parks, conservation areas and reserves for both conservation and recreation purposes. It is a good example of government policy in action.
These parks and reserves protect and manage coastal areas which directly and indirectly helps to preserve marine and kelp ecosystems. For example, because housing developments are prohibited in coastal national parks, the waterways and adjoining ocean ecosystems are usually more healthy. The NPWS has developed a network of parks and reserves for different purposes.
The 'Marine estate' refers to the whole area of coasts, beaches, estuaries and ocean in NSW.
The system of 'Marine Protected Areas' is different to the whole marine estate, as it is the collection of marine national parks and reserves which were formed to conserve marine biodiversity and support marine science, recreation and education. The Department of Primary Industries (DPI) and not the NPWS manages the 'Marine Protected Areas', due to their expertise in managing fisheries and marine ecosystems.
The NSW system of 'Marine Protected Areas' includes:
The location of Marine Protected Areas in NSW is shown on this map.
'Reef Life Survey ' (RLS) is an organisation made up of scientists and volunteers, and it undertakes underwater surveys of temperate and tropical reefs each year. Watch the webinar presentation by RLS to examine how Marine Protected Areas make a difference in the levels of biodiversity.
C. Other Government Policy eg, strategic plans and actions.
NSW government departments such as the Office of Environment and Heritage (OEH) have collaborated to create strategic plans and strategies for managing how communities , species and ecological systems adapt to a changing climate and to the risk of extinction . For example the DPI's Saving our Species program.
Many of these strategies are based on the Sharing and Enabling Environmental Data (SEED ) policy which was developed so that government action and policies are based on valid and reliable data and information.
The federal government and state governments are developing policies and strategies to reduce carbon dioxide and other emissions as part of government and worldwide action to manage global warming and climate change.
The federal government has committed to some action under its commitment to the Paris Climate Agreement which built on global agreements signed under the Kyoto Protocol.
National governments from across the world will meet in Glasgow later in 2021 to develop and monitor these policy commitments. Management of global warming has implications for the management and resilience of ecosystems.
Reef Life Survey makes the underwater world visible through scientific surveys and citizen science.
I YouTube I 4:12 Transcript
CASE STUDY
It is located at Shelley Beach, near Manly.
As an aquatic reserve Cabbage Tree Bay is a 'no take' zone and thus supports a high level of biodiversity, including species of kelp, sea dragons and fish. The dominant species of kelp is Phyllospora comosa.
The link for Cabbage Tree Bay describes its location, ecosystem, biodiversity and management strategies.
'Operation Crayweed' is a project lead by Dr Verges and Dr Marzinelli and supported by SIMS. The scientists and volunteers involved in the project transplanted kelp to the sea floor at Cabbage Tree bay in 2019. An appropriate rocky reef was located approximately 80 metres from the cafe at Shelley beach.
Activities
Locate Cabbage Tree Bay on a map of Sydney.
The Operation Crayweed project also replanted crayweed at Towra Point and Malabar. These locations could also be used as your case study.
View the 'skyepics' website.
From the first page, view an oblique photo of Cabbage Tree Bay and then click'View in Map' and view Cabbage Tree Bay on a satellite map.
What are the advantages and disadvantages of both photographic techniques?
Observe the maps and photographs carefully. Outline three sources or types of threats to the kelp ecosystem eg, pollution, which might be present in the Bay or in the surrounding catchment.
Write a 5 line paragraph on how kelp supports the biodiversity of the Bay, include examples of species you might find.
Why was 'Operation Crayweed' necessary in Cabbage Tree Bay ?
Outline 'Operation Crayweed' 's methods in Cabbage Tree Bay.
Evaluate the success of 'Operation Crayweed' in Cabbage Tree Bay.
Source : Sydney's changing reefs webinar I YouTube I 57:03
ReefLifeSurvey Transcript
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t6NbjglbYGo
Figure 49 : Marine Protected areas of NSW
Source : DPI NSW
Activities
Refer to figure 48. Describe what happens to the numbers of invertebrates and the numbers of urchins in protected areas compared to areas not protected .
Name two 'Marine Protected Areas' (MPA's) along the NSW coast, perhaps MPA's near where you live or where you visit.
Describe the natural characteristics of these MPA's eg, size and elements of the biosphere, atmosphere, lithosphere, hydrosphere.
Outline three sources or types of threats which might be present in the MPA's .
Use the Reef Life Survey website to navigate to the map and locate your MPA.
Name three marine plants and animals in your MPA or use the 'map and browse' feature to investigate species such as the Blue groper.
Fieldwork
Use the Reef Life Survey link to describe the survey methods divers use to survey/count marine life.
Outline how you could adapt these methods to a stretch of kelp or seaweed at a beach, rock-pool or rock platform that you could visit.
Given that underwater scuba diving or even snorkelling is not accessible for most students, look for a kelp bed which is close to the surface at low tide, or one that you can paddle and walk through and/or view at low tide. Some questions to think about are -
what total area will you use?
how long will your transect be?
what identification chart, App, field guide or book will you use to identify kelp and other species?
how you will record and tally your observations?
view the Youtube below before you start your fieldwork.
What are your fieldwork inquiry questions ?
Will you investigate how the population density of kelp/seaweed varies within an area OR will you compare population sizes /totals of kelp in different areas?
How can your results be mapped and linked to geographical questions?
Use this article and watch the Youtube video from a UK biology teacher to view different methods for conducting quadrat and transect sampling and data collection in the field.
4. Contemporary Aboriginal Management
Kelp is a resource which is part of the marine ecosystem and part of 'Sea Country'. Therefore, strategies put in place by Aboriginal communities, organisations and departments which manage marine resources collaboratively are important to the management of kelp.
Researchers, together with those at Deakin University's 'Seaweed Research Group' are working with Aboriginal communities to use coastal resources to revitalise traditional ceremonies and provide opportunities for "innovative Indigenous business activities and product creation, based around food, sustainable natural-fibre technologies and health." Dr Thurstan et al
"Aboriginal people reflect the importance of Sea Country in their dreaming, languages, art, music, dances and stories. They possess knowledge and expertise, passed on through many generations, which can contribute towards the sustainable management of Sea Country .
Consultation with aboriginal communities and increased representation of Aboriginal people in organisations aims to increase participation by Aboriginal people in decision-making for the marine estate, to ensure culturally appropriate management of Sea Country
NSW government departments now manage coastal and ocean resources in consultation with Aboriginal communities to include traditional knowledge and sustainable use practices into their overall management strategies.
In NSW, in addition to national parks and reserves, the NPWS has created areas called 'Aboriginal areas' to recognise Aboriginal traditional connections with the land and sea. These areas allow Aboriginal communities to engage in cultural practices and sustainable use of marine resources, including kelp.
The NSW government departments of Trade and Investment and Primary Industries and Fisheries have developed policies for the Marine Estate DPI which include Aboriginal engagement and Aboriginal cultural use of fisheries and resources. "Cultural resource use involves the collection of fish and marine plants for subsistence, medicinal and other Aboriginal cultural purposes within a marine park. Cultural resource use can also refer to activities associated with visiting places, such as culture camps. Cultural use of fisheries resources is supported in marine parks through the three following processes.
Establishment of special purpose zones
Development of Cultural Resource Use Agreements
Event specific permits for individuals or groups".
Watch the YouTube clip above to see how Aboriginal communities and Aboriginal cultural practices are being embedded into the management of our marine resources and the marine estate.
5. Seaweed farming and aquaculture
Seaweed has always been used for food in countries like China, Japan and Korea. The demand for seaweed as a product has grown rapidly over the last decade and is now a billion dollar industry. Thus, seaweed is being farmed and developed into an aquaculture industry. Seaweed is increasingly used -
In consumer products such as health and beauty products,
As an alternative to paper, leather and even bricks
As a food product and a new source of protein,
To help clean polluted water
In industrial applications eg, as a thickener in food or as a material for medical devices
As a fertiliser
As a carbon sink and used for climate change mitigation - when marine resources are developed and used to absorb carbon dioxide, it is known as 'Blue carbon'.
Watch the ABC's Catalyst video - Can seaweed save the world? and
BBC's How kelp can help solve climate change
Australia has only recently begun to develop seaweed aquaculture. There is huge potential, as south eastern Australia has more species of seaweeds than anywhere else in the world and these seaweeds are endemic to this region, which means they do not grow anywhere else in the world. Both 'marine permaculture' and '3D ocean farming' techniques are being developed in Australia to farm and grow seaweed and kelp.
ABARES (Australian Bureau of Agricultural and resource Economics and Sciences) has collected some data on the value seaweed production in Australia today. So far, the harvesting of bull kelp in Tasmania (worth approximately $2 million per year) is the only significant commercial farming of kelp in Australia.
Examples of research into how seaweed farming may be used in south eastern Australia in the future can be found below
Phyco Health- NSW business with seaweed products
6. Environmental organisations and non- government organisations (NGO's)
Some organisations have been set up as a charity or a not - for - profit organisation to fulfil goals such as -
to help preserve marine ecosystems and
manage threats to marine ecosystems and kelp forests
These organisations attempt to fulfil their goals by
raising awareness in the community and
by encouraging individuals to volunteer, take action and change their behaviour, eg, reduce litter.
Read about organisations such as Oceana , Conservation volunteers Australia and Take 3 for the Sea to find out how individual action can help manage the threats to kelp forests.
7. Research and Education
Institutions like universities, CSIRO, SIMS and the Royal Botanic Gardens provide an
important research role - providing data , insights and information to managers, government advisory panels and users of kelp forest ecosystems,
educational role to managers, the community, teachers and school students about the role of kelp and seaweed forests. View the video from the Royal Botanic Gardens about a common seaweed called 'Codium' which lives on inter tidal platforms.
In the case of the Royal Botanic Gardens, it has established a seed bank for all of the species of kelp and seaweed plants in Australia. A comprehensive seed bank such as this acts as a supply of kelp plants in case climate change decimates the natural supply of kelp plants and seeds.
Protecting Aboriginal Cultural values in NSW Marine Estate I NSW DPI I YouTube I 4:03 Transcript
Video : Can seaweed save the world ?
Source : ABC - Catalyst, Prof Tim Flannery
https://www.abc.net.au/catalyst/can-seaweed-save-the-world/11017106
ACTIVITIES
Watch the ABC's Catalyst video - Can seaweed save the world?
a. Write down all of the new uses of seaweed that are outlined in the Catalyst show.
b. Describe one of the new uses of seaweed in more detail.
c. How many tonnes of carbon dioxide can seaweed farms remove from the atmosphere each year ?
d. Why does Dr Alecia Bellgrove from Deakin University's Seaweed Research Group have some concerns about seaweed farming on a large scale ?
Watch and read https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20210406-how-kelp-can-help-solve-climate-change . Outline current seaweed farming practices operating in NSW today. Describe the future of seaweed farming as outlined by Dr Pia Winberg and other scientists.
ACTIVITIES
Watch the ABC's Catalyst video - Can seaweed save the world?
a. Write down all of the new uses of seaweed that are outlined in the Catalyst show.
b. Describe one of the new uses of seaweed in more detail.
c. How many tonnes of carbon dioxide can seaweed farms remove from the atmosphere each year ?
d. Outline the importance of kelp and seaweeds n the carbon and nutrient cycles of the world.
e. Why does Dr Alecia Bellgrove from Deakin University's Seaweed Research Group have some concerns about seaweed farming on a large scale ?
Watch and read BBC's How kelp can help solve climate change
Outline current seaweed farming practices operating in NSW today. Describe the future of seaweed farming as outlined by Dr Pia Winberg and other scientists.
Project Codium I Vimeo I 4:07
Royal Botanic Gardens I Dr Yola Metti