Changing interpretations: impact of new research and technologies

Papyri Scrolls

In the 18th century, approximately 1,800 carbonised scrolls were discovered in the Villa of the Papyri. In 1756, Father Antonio Piaggio invented a machine to unroll these fragile papyri, but unrolling often caused damage. Extracted fragments were deciphered and published, albeit in a jumbled and incomplete form.

Recent advances in technology have allowed researchers to believe that about 60% of the papyri scrolls can now be pieced together. Computer enhancement has increased the legibility of scrolls, which often appear black to the naked eye. Using multi-spectral imaging, sharp images with enhanced contrast have revealed previously invisible letters.

Future technologies may allow scholars to read these papyri without opening or damaging them.

Recent Advances in Papyri Research

• Enhanced Imaging Techniques: Since the early 2000s, techniques such as X-ray phase-contrast tomography and synchrotron radiation imaging have been increasingly used to read carbonised papyri without unrolling them. These non-invasive methods allow researchers to visualise text hidden inside scrolls with high resolution, preserving fragile materials.

• Artificial Intelligence (AI): AI and machine learning algorithms are now being applied to improve the reconstruction and decipherment of damaged texts, significantly increasing the amount of readable content from the Villa of the Papyri.

• Collaborative Projects: International collaborations, such as the “Unlocking the Papyri” project, continue to push the boundaries of what can be recovered from such scrolls, with ongoing discoveries about ancient philosophy, poetry, and daily life.

Since Pompeii’s discovery, skeletons have been unearthed at the site, though they often became disarticulated and jumbled. Until the late 20th century, little research was conducted on these remains. In the 19th century, skulls were considered the most important part of the skeleton; in 1882, Nicolucci published a study based on measurements of 100 skulls.

From 1986, Estelle Lazer studied over 300 individuals represented by disarticulated bones, using statistical analyses on skulls, hips, pelvises, and limb bones. Her research established the population’s makeup. Forensic medicine and physical anthropology helped determine sex, age at death, height, signs of disease, and population affinities of the victims.

Results indicate an almost equal number of males and females of all age groups failed to escape the town. Bones of small children tend not to survive well archaeologically.

Since the first excavations in 1748, human remains were sometimes displayed to tourists and scholars as being in their original positions, but some displays were fabricated. For example, the House of the Surgeon was discovered in the presence of royalty.

Skeleton displays in the House of the Meander became tourist attractions. These skeletons were moved during the time of Mauri, and implements were added suggestively. The bodies were later reinterpreted as looters who returned after the eruption and were killed. This tableau was likely created deliberately, though perhaps not by Mauri himself.

Technological Advances in Analysis

The first X-ray analysis of a cast victim was performed in Sydney in 1994. The body, initially believed to be a young female and dubbed the ‘Lady of Oplontis’ based on associated artefacts, was revealed by X-ray to be a mature female, as indicated by her teeth.

The “pugilist” or boxer pose, with flexed limbs, indicates exposure to high temperatures at or near the time of death. Not all bodies were found in this pose; another rare phenomenon, catavaric spasm, was observed in some victims.

Preservation and Population Insights

Remains from Herculaneum are better preserved than those from Pompeii. Herculaneum’s skeletal remains often represent complete individuals, providing more detailed information.

Traditionally, it was thought Pompeii’s victims skewed toward the old, infirm, very young, and women—those less likely to escape. However, skeletal evidence suggests no significant age or sex bias among victims, although very young juveniles are under-represented, which is common in archaeological contexts.

Stature estimates from Pompeii and Herculaneum are comparable to or exceed modern Neapolitan averages, suggesting that the ancient Campanian diet was adequate and health during growth periods was relatively good.

Interpreting general population growth from skeletal remains alone is problematic, as many diseases leave no skeletal trace and similar bone changes can result from different disorders. Identified diseases include tuberculosis, respiratory disease, and lice infestation.

DNA and Environmental Studies

Attempts to study DNA from skeletal remains at Pompeii and Herculaneum have so far yielded limited results. However, DNA analysis holds promise for revealing genetic relationships, group affiliations, and inherited diseases. Preliminary studies indicate that sufficient DNA has survived in some remains for more extensive future analysis.

Scientific analysis of environmental data has also contributed insights. From the 1970s, Wilhelmina Jashemski demonstrated the types of crops, roots, and plants grown at Pompeii.

Pollen analysis conducted in 2002 had limited success due to the difficulty of retrieving pollen from fertile agricultural or garden soils typical of the Vesuvian region. Despite challenges, pollen studies remain valuable indicators of ancient flora.

New Advances in Human Remains Analysis

• Ancient DNA (aDNA): Improved protocols for extracting and sequencing aDNA from volcanic contexts have led to some successful recoveries of genetic material from Pompeii and Herculaneum remains. These analyses are helping to clarify population origins, familial relationships, and genetic diseases.

• Isotope Analysis: Stable isotope studies on bones and teeth have provided insights into ancient diets, migration patterns, and environmental conditions experienced by the inhabitants.

• Forensic Techniques: Latest forensic imaging methods, including 3D scanning and virtual reconstructions, allow detailed study of skeletal trauma and pathology, providing better understanding of causes of death and health status.

Environmental and Botanical Studies

• Advanced Pollen and Phytolith Analysis: New methodologies have enhanced the detection of pollen and microscopic plant remains in volcanic soils, improving reconstructions of ancient agricultural practices and natural vegetation.

• Soil DNA (eDNA): Environmental DNA extracted from soils at excavation sites is emerging as a powerful tool to identify past plant and animal species, complementing traditional archaeobotanical studies.

• Climate Reconstruction: Recent studies integrate palaeoenvironmental data from volcanic deposits and sediment cores to better understand the climate and environmental changes around Pompeii and Herculaneum during the Roman period.