Religion: household gods, temples, foreign cults and religions, tombs 

In the houses of Pompeii and Herculaneum, small shrines called lararia (singular: lararium) were common. These contained small statues or painted images of the Lares, guardian spirits associated with places of crossing or entry. The Lares were household gods protecting the home and family. Each day, the paterfamilias would gather family and slaves around the lararium, offer sacrifices to the Lares, and pray for the household’s protection and prosperity.

Monthly ceremonies and other rituals marked important family occasions such as births, coming-of-age ceremonies, weddings, and anniversaries. Other gods associated with the household included Vesta, goddess of the hearth, and the Penates, guardians of the pantry or food store. Sacrificial imagery on shrines suggests households performed sacrifices on a domestic scale. The neighbourhood worshipped collectively at crossroads altars.

Temples served two primary functions: to house images of the gods and objects associated with their worship, and to provide a space where priests could conduct proper rituals to honour the gods. Temples were not places for regular services held for large groups.

No temples have been excavated at Herculaneum; however, ten temples have been excavated at Pompeii. Herakles was regarded as the founder of both Herculaneum and Pompeii.

The Roman state cult included Jupiter, protector of the state; Juno, guardian of women; and Minerva, patroness of craft workers. Priesthoods in these state cults were prestigious positions often held by members of the Curia and magistrates.

Worshippers of Isis met at the temple twice daily for special services: at dawn, to celebrate the rising sun symbolizing the rebirth of Osiris, and in the early afternoon for a water ceremony where Nile water—considered the source of all life—was blessed.

At least two other eastern religions had followers in Pompeii. Archaeologists have found an ivory figure of the Hindu fertility goddess Lakshmi, and a bronze bust representing the Near Eastern fertility god Sabazius.

More than twenty shrines or altars have been found in the streets of Pompeii, many at crossroads. Most featured painted images of the Lares, with some displaying other gods or scenes of sacrifice. People made offerings at these shrines for the town’s protection.

Mercury, depicted carrying a moneybag, was the patron of commerce; his image appears on many shop walls. Images of Venus, goddess of love and success, are found throughout Pompeii—in shops, taverns, houses, gardens, and gladiator chambers. Venus is often mentioned in graffiti and was used in political campaigns by aspiring politicians.

Although no temples to Hercules have been found, his image featured prominently in household and street shrines, paintings, and statues, likely because he was regarded as one of Pompeii’s oldest guardians.

Dionysus, god of wine and theatre, appears in statues, paintings, masks, and other objects.

Prayers, offerings, and sacrifices were made to the gods both in homes and at street shrines. In temples, priests and priestesses conducted rituals and ceremonies. Festivals and processions honoured particular gods, and games—featuring gladiators, bullfights, and boxers—were held in their name, especially for Apollo.

Public buildings were often constructed or restored by civic-minded individuals and dedicated to the gods. Priests and priestesses frequently had their religious service commemorated on their tombs.

The dead were buried outside city walls. While no tombs have yet been discovered in Herculaneum, Pompeii has entire streets of tombs.

Inscriptions and decorations on tombs provide valuable information about the lives and religious beliefs of those interred. Tombs reveal information about free men and women, children, lower-class people, and slaves.

Romans typically cremated their dead and placed ashes in urns, which were buried in the ground or placed in family tombs.

A special type of tomb was the exedra or seat tomb—often semicircular and large enough to seat several people. This form was sometimes granted as a public honour, such as to the priestess Mamia.

The largest tomb uncovered in Pompeii belonged to another public priestess, Eumachia.

Funerals involved costly offerings such as frankincense and perfumes at the pyre, and libations (pouring of wine or oil). Banquets were often held near burial sites as offerings of food for the deceased.

A nine-day mourning period followed, during which offerings continued, and a second banquet was held. Libations also continued at the tomb beyond this period.