Range of sources

The nature of sources and evidence

There are a range of both written and archaeological sources of Pompeii and Herculaneum.

The range of archaeological sources include:

Including the remains of streets and buildings – houses, shops, baths, temples & theatres, drainage systems, statues, mosaics & wall paintings, everyday objects & tools, woman & animal remains.

Public Buildings:

- Temples and other public structures provide evidence of legal obligations, political practices, religious beliefs and rituals, as well as technological and construction techniques.

Sanitation Systems:

- Aqueducts, pipes, fountains, and drains reveal the plumbing infrastructure and hygiene practices in Pompeii and Herculaneum.

Materials and Construction Methods:

- These show the trades, craftsmanship, and external influences on building techniques. Houses include furnishings, decorations, and facilities for cooking and dining.

Food Production and Consumption:

- Artefacts such as millstones, ovens, wine and olive presses, jars, bars, and taverns provide insight into both the production and consumption of food and drink.

Mosaics and Wall Paintings:

- Visual representations depict everyday life activities such as dancing, singing, gambling, cockfighting, clothing styles, hairstyles, mythological scenes, and production processes.

Jewellery:

- Items of jewellery illustrate wealth, fashion trends, and craftsmanship.

Animal Remains:

- Evidence of pets (e.g., a dog found in Pompeii), food sources (e.g., fish found in a Herculaneum latrine pit), and work animals (e.g., a mule found in a Pompeian bakery, likely used for tasks such as winding a mill).

Human Remains:

- Body Cavities: Found uniquely at Pompeii, these were discovered in the 19th century and filled with plaster to create casts of victims. These casts provide detailed evidence of physical characteristics, clothing, jewellery, and the effects of the eruption, including causes of death.
- Skeletal Remains: Found inside body cavities at Pompeii, embedded in solidified volcanic material or carbonised at Herculaneum. These remains provide insight into physical characteristics, social status, and the eruption’s impact on individuals. Variation in skulls also suggests ethnic diversity.

Gardens and Plant Remains:

- Gardens reveal cultural influences and lifestyle priorities. Types of plants indicate social status. Plants can be identified from plaster casts of roots and carbonised remains. Thousands of grapevine root holes have been found, corroborated by frescoes and written sources. Carbonised olives have also been discovered.

Statues:

- Statues reveal mythology and religious practices.

Advertisements:

- Provide information on popular foods and leisure activities.

Inscriptions:

- Stone inscriptions label buildings and offer valuable, reliable records. Labels on containers reveal trade connections and consumer lifestyles.

Seals and Amphorae:

- Indicate the extent and wealth of trade networks.

Graffiti:

- Mainly personal in nature, graffiti provides insights into the everyday lives, interests, and social interactions of inhabitants.

Domestic Artefacts:

- Abundant domestic items include kitchen utensils, loaves of bread, potter’s tools, millstones, charred nuts and fruits, and jewellery such as signet rings identifying the House of the Vettii.

Other Sources:

- Casts made from voids left by plants, animals, and humans in the ash provide additional evidence of diet and commercial activities.

The range of Written sources include:

Ancient Writers

The written sources related to Pompeii and Herculaneum include a variety of classical authors:

Cicero mentions Herculaneum as one of the most important centres in Campania.
Strabo describes Herculaneum as a wealthy town and refers to Pompeii several times while discussing the coastal towns before the AD 79 eruption.
Dionysius of Halicarnassus praises the excellence of Herculaneum’s harbour.
Seneca provides an account of the earthquake that struck the region in AD 62.
Pliny the Elder wrote extensively on the natural history of the area before the eruption.
Pliny the Younger, an eyewitness to the eruption, later wrote a detailed account of the AD 79 event.
Marshall refers to Herculaneum and Vesuvius in an epigram.
Tacitus requested Pliny the Younger’s account of his uncle’s death, which led to Pliny’s famous letters describing the eruption.
Suetonius wrote about Pliny the Elder and the relief efforts following the eruption.
Dio Cassius, writing about 100 years after the eruption, provides a historical account of the event.

Epigraphic Sources

These sources, which reveal aspects of daily life, include:

Official inscriptions on public monuments
Graffiti
Election slogans
Tombstones
Advertisements
Coins
Inscriptions on everyday objects, such as measuring devices used in shops
Inscriptions on statues

The Limitation, Reliability and Evaluation of Sources

Written Sources

The written sources are limited and often consist of passing references, with the notable exception of Tacitus’s description of the volcanic eruption. Pliny the Younger’s letters to Tacitus were written approximately 25 years after the eruption, and his eyewitness account was based on observations made from Misenum, about 32 km away. Many ancient sources rely on earlier accounts, which can affect their reliability.

Graffiti provides personal insights but its reliability is problematic due to its informal and often fragmentary nature. No personal writings—such as letters, poems, lists, or stories—have been found, resulting in significant gaps in the written record. The absence of firsthand accounts from ordinary people limits our understanding of their dreams, thoughts, and worldviews.

Only two legal documents have been discovered, restricting insight into business and legal activities. Additionally, all written sources must be understood within their social and cultural contexts, which can render some references obscure or misleading.

Archaeological Sources

The richest source of evidence is archaeological. This detailed material evidence is crucial not only for understanding Pompeii as a small Roman town—its structure and functioning—but also for shedding light on the wider Roman world.

However, archaeological evidence also has limitations. It is often uncovered as ruins and relics, resulting in incomplete, fragmentary, or damaged material that can be misleading or difficult to interpret. The risk of misinterpretation exists at every stage of excavation, analysis, and presentation.

In Pompeii, early antiquarian approaches—from the initial discoveries until the 19th century—led to loss of artefacts and damage to buildings. Systematic excavation did not begin until the 1860s, and inconsistent conservation efforts continued until the 1970s, further degrading the site.

Stratigraphic analysis, essential for understanding the eruption and its effects, was not systematically undertaken until the 1980s. Human remains, especially bones, were not considered valuable for analysis until that time.

Restoration techniques have sometimes been inadequate, with administrative and financial constraints limiting proper conservation, resulting in damage to some buildings and artefacts.

In Herculaneum, the absence of a discovered forum limits knowledge of civil life, as key public and political buildings would typically be located near the forum. Additionally, limited information exists on commercial manufacturing and trade. No amphitheatre or city walls have yet been found or excavated, further restricting understanding of the town’s social and defensive structures.

Links

✍️Past HSC question on value and limitations of sources. (2019)

✍️Past HSC question on graffiti (2020)

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