Women from wealthy families were often educated and could own property in their own right. However, regardless of class, women were not citizens and had no political rights—they could not vote, hold office as magistrates, or sit on the town council. Electoral graffiti provides evidence that women supported local candidates.

Some women were very successful in business, and some were literate. Within the household, women supervised the work of slaves, who performed various tasks depending on the family’s wealth and size. A business left by a husband to his wife could be managed by her after his death.

Women participated in a variety of occupations, including servants, weavers, innkeepers, fruit sellers, and prostitutes.

Women from prominent families were sometimes conspicuous public figures due to their personal wealth and connections. Notable upper-class women include:

• Julia Felix, an independent woman who inherited a large estate, owning a house occupying an entire city block. Her home combined private living spaces and commercial activity, with the front converted into tabernae (shops).

• Poppaea Sabina, wife of Emperor Nero from AD 62 until her death in AD 65, owned two houses in Pompeii—the ‘House of the Meander’ and the ‘House of the Golden Cupids’. She was popular locally for persuading Nero to lift the ban on games in the amphitheatre, as evidenced by graffiti.

• Eumachia, a public priestess of Venus and matron of the imperial cult in Pompeii, was also known as the ‘Matron of the Fullers’. Daughter of a brick maker, she married into one of Pompeii’s older families and used her wealth and priestly status to influence public affairs. She donated the use of a building she funded in the forum to the college of fullers; a statue in her honour was erected by this guild.

Many lower-class women were involved in crafts such as weaving and wool spinning. Priestesses were held in high regard, as shown by funerary inscriptions. There were also numerous prostitutes; 26 lupanaria (brothels) have been identified in Pompeii, many located near public baths. None have yet been excavated in Herculaneum.

Slaves could be bought, sold, and inherited. Both men and women owned slaves and exercised significant authority over them, including life and death decisions. Slavery was a central institution in Roman society.

Slaves, whether captured, auctioned, or born to slave mothers, belonged entirely to their masters. They represented a significant proportion of the population in Pompeii and Herculaneum—possibly as many as 40%. Many slaves were literate and entrusted with responsible roles. Educated male slaves enjoyed higher privileges.

Female slaves were not permitted to marry, and any children they bore inherited their mother’s status and belonged to the owner. Slaves performed a wide range of tasks and functions.

Slaves could be manumitted, or granted freedom by their masters, or they could save money to buy their liberty.