SKILL IN SPORTS

INDEX

1. Definition of skill 

2. Different types of skill

                Compare skills profiles for contrasting sports

3. Outline ability 

            3.1. perceptual abilities

3.2. motor abilities

4. Fleishman's taxonomy 

5. Technique

6. Information processing

7. Signal detection process

8. Selective attention

  8.1. memory improvement

9. Response time

10. Motor program

 10.1 Motor programmes from both open and closed loop perspectives 

11. Motor programmes from both open and closed loop perspectives 

12. Outline the role of feedback in information processing models

12.1   Types of feedback

13. Principles of skill learning

            13.1.  Distinguish between learning and performance

            13.2.  Phases of learning

            13.3   Factors that contribute to the different rates of learning

14. Transfer

15. Practice

1. Definition of Skill

The consistent production of goal-oriented movements, which are learned and specific to the task.

2. Different types of skill

• Cognitive: Ability to solve problems by thinking

• Perceptual: Process by which you sense things and interpret them

• Motor: A voluntary body movement with a predetermined end result

• Perceptual-motor: Involve the thought, interpretation and movement skills

Compare skills profiles for contrasting sports

Gross - Fine

• Gross: large movements using large muscles or involving whole muscle groups; movements such as rolling over, kicking, flipping

• Fine: small and intricate movements, using small muscles often at the extremities; such as fingers, toes, wrists and tongues 

Open - Closed

• Open: a skill performed in an unstable environment, where the environmental stimuli determines the initiation of the movement

• Closed: performed in a stationary environment, and it is highly controlled by the individual, who dictates the initiation. Often easier. 

Discrete - Serial - Continuous 

• Discrete: brief and defined actions that have a definitive start and end to their movement. Single, specific actions; such as a penalty kick

• Serial: a sequence of discrete skills joined together to create a greater movement, such as a triple jump 

• Continuous: has no obvious beginning or end, actions are repeated in a cyclical form, such as running, can be stopped throughout the performance

Externally paced - Internally paced

• Externally paced: the environment (including opponents) control the pace at which the skill is executed, these factors will affect the performance and must be taken into account by the performer. Typically open skills. 

• Internally paced: performer dictates the rate of speed that the skills are performed, often comprise of closed skills (javelin throw)

Individual - Coactive - Interactive

• Individual: skills performed in isolation, like a high jump

• Coactive: skills that may be performed in unison with other competitors, but do not involve direct confrontation or contact, eg. swimming

• Interactive: skills performed where others are directly involved, such as game sports like rugby or football 

3. Outline ability

Ability refers to a general train or capacity of the individual that is related to the performance and performance potential of a variety of skills or tasks

Perceptual abilities

Way in which we notice significant things that are happening around us and how quickly and effectively we make decisions about how to deal with them.

motor abilities

Personal characteristics or enduring traits which affect an individual's output.

4. Fleishman’s taxonomy

Fleishman’s Physical Proficiency (Gross Motor) Abilities - Health related

• Extent flexibility

• Dynamic flexibility

• Explosive strength

• Static strength

• Dynamic strength

• Trunk strength

• Gross body coordination

• Gross body equilibrium

• Stamina

Fleishman’s Perceptual Motor (psychomotor) Abilities - Skill related

• Reaction time

• Response orientation

• Speed of movement

• Finger dexterity

• Manual dexterity

• Response integration

5. Technique (Skill = ability + technique)

Technique in general terms is a "way of doing". In the performance of a specific sports skill it is defined as the "the way in which that sports skill is performed".

6. Information Processing

In response to input stimuli, the performer perceives the stimulus, and recounts by executing an appropriate output, after their brain goes through the decision making process. Feedback is then often given, so that the response can be altered to be made better if necessary.

7. Signal detection process

Often referred to as the detection-comparison-recognition process (DCR).

• Detection is the process of registering the stimulus through then sense organs

• Comparison is the process of referring to the stimulus to the memory, to compare it to previously stored stimulus.

• Recognition is the process of finding a corresponding stimulus in the memory.

The probability of detecting any given signal depends on the intensity of the signal compared to the intensity of the background noise. Individuals receive about 100,000 pieces of information per second. This information may be from the

environment or from within the person themselves. 

• Background noise: or the nonessential information. May be actual noise (sound of spectators) but covers all information that is not part of the signal. 

This can be visual or from within yourself such as worrying about failing.

• Intensity of the stimulus: level of the source.

• Efficiency of the sense organs: the sensitivity to a stimulus may depend on the efficiency of the person’s sense organs (eyes,vestibular apparatus)

• Early signal detection: also experience. Familiar signals are thought to be more readily detected than unfamiliar ones.

• Improving signal detection: can be done by ensuring that the performer is optimally aroused but can also be aided by good selective attention.

8. Selective attention

SA is very important when accuracy or fast responses are required and can be improved by learning through past experiences and interaction with long-term memory.

Memory improvement

• Rehearsal: required to get information into LTM, and to increase the chances of being able to recall that information.

• Coding: information associated with images can be recalled better with the associations 

• Brevity: it is easier to remember short and specific details rather than long and vague information

• Clarity: if the information is clear and understood, it will be easier to remember 

• Chunking: To some degree we do this automatically.  It is literally a case of chunking several pieces of information into one meaningful chunk, which takes up less space in STM.

9. Response time (Response time = reaction time + movement time)

• Response time: total time from the presentation of stimulus to the completion of the task.

• Reaction time: is the amount of time between a stimulus and the first movement initiated response to it. Does not include movement time. Eg. hearing the gun pushing against the blocks.

• Movement time: is the time taken to complete the task after it has been initiated. Begins when the body begins to move - not when then stimulus is applied - and ends when the task is completed.

10. Motor programme

Defined as a set of movements stored as a whole in the memory, regardless of whether feedback is used in their execution.

• a whole plan (executive program/ motor program) 

• subroutines 

• coordination of subroutines

• relegating executive programme to subroutine

11. motor programme from both open and closed loop perspectives 

Open Loop Theory

This theory states the following:

• Decisions are made in the brain

• Information for one movement is sent in a single message

• The muscles receive the message, where they then perform the movement. 

• Feedback may or may not be available but it doesn't control the action

Closed Loop Theory

On the other hand, this theory explains slow movements well but not fast movements.

• Decisions are made in the brain

• Information is sent to at different times

• Information is received by the muscles to initiate the movement

• Feedback is always available and is necessary for correction of  movement patterns and to adjust to changing needs.

12. Outline the role of feedback in information processing models

Feedback is the term we use to describe information resulting from an action or response

12.1 Types of feedback

• Intrinsic: is the physical feel of the movement as it is being performed. It is what is felt by the performer as they execute a skill or performance.

• Extrinsic: is provided by external sources, during or after a performance. It includes things that the performer can hear or see.

KNOWLEDGE OF RESULTS (KR) & KNOWLEDGE OF PERFORMANCE (KP)

Knowledge of results

Post-response information concerning the outcome of the action

Long Jumper: Knowing the distance jumped

Track Athlete: Knowing the time ran

Knowledge of performance

Consists of post-response information concerning the nature of the movement

The feel of the movement

Knowledge of sensory consequences

POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

Positive: Can be telling someone that he or she has done well.

Negative: Prescriptive feedback has been shown to be effective following either a negative or positive approach

13. Principles of skill learning

13.1. Distinguish between learning and performance

• Learning is a relatively permanent change in performance brought about by experience, excluding changes due to maturation and degeneration.

• Performance is a temporary occurrence, fluctuating over time. A change in performance over time is often used to infer learning.

13.2. Phases (stages) of learning

• Early phase: Cognitive = mental picture

• Immediate phase: associative = practise and get feel of skill

• Final phase: autonomous = perform automatically 

13.3. factors that contribute to the different rates of learning

• Physical demands: Has physical maturation but is not fit enough

• Motivation: The learner wants to learn

• Physical maturation: The learner is good at knowing when they are ready to gain a skill

14. Transfer

Transfer in skill acquisition is the influence of learning and/or performance of one skill on the learning and/or performance of another. If this influences a skill yet to be learned or performed it is called proactive transfer, if it influences the performance of a previous learnt skill it is called retroactive.

types of transfer

• Skill to skill (one skill to the next)

• Practice to performance (training to in game situation)

• Abilities to skills (how natural abilities inform acquisition of skill)

• Bilateral (from one limb to the other, left-to-right and right-to-left)

• Stage to stage (from cognitive to associative, associative to autonomous) 

• Principles to skills (from theories to actual performance)

15. Practice

16. Teaching Styles.