INDEX
Definition of skill
Different types of skill
Compare skills profiles for contrasting sports
Outline ability
3.1. perceptual abilities
3.2. motor abilities
Fleishman's taxonomy
Technique
Information processing
Signal detection process
Selective attention
8.1. memory improvement
Response time
Motor program
10.1 Motor programmes from both open and closed loop perspectives
Motor programmes from both open and closed loop perspectives
Outline the role of feedback in information processing models
12.1 Types of feedback
Principles of skill learning
13.1. Distinguish between learning and performance
13.2. Phases of learning
13.3 Factors that contribute to the different rates of learning
Transfer
Practice
Definition of Skill
The consistent production of goal-oriented movements, which are learned and specific to the task.
Different types of skill
Cognitive: Ability to solve problems by thinking
Perceptual: Process by which you sense things and interpret them
Motor: A voluntary body movement with a predetermined end result
Perceptual-motor: Involve the thought, interpretation and movement skills
Compare skills profiles for contrasting sports
Gross - Fine
Gross: large movements using large muscles or involving whole muscle groups; movements such as rolling over, kicking, flipping
Fine: small and intricate movements, using small muscles often at the extremities; such as fingers, toes, wrists and tongues
Open - Closed
Open: a skill performed in an unstable environment, where the environmental stimuli determines the initiation of the movement
Closed: performed in a stationary environment, and it is highly controlled by the individual, who dictates the initiation. Often easier.
Discrete - Serial - Continuous
Discrete: brief and defined actions that have a definitive start and end to their movement. Single, specific actions; such as a penalty kick
Serial: a sequence of discrete skills joined together to create a greater movement, such as a triple jump
Continuous: has no obvious beginning or end, actions are repeated in a cyclical form, such as running, can be stopped throughout the performance
Externally paced - Internally paced
Externally paced: the environment (including opponents) control the pace at which the skill is executed, these factors will affect the performance and must be taken into account by the performer. Typically open skills.
Internally paced: performer dictates the rate of speed that the skills are performed, often comprise of closed skills (javelin throw)
Individual - Coactive - Interactive
Individual: skills performed in isolation, like a high jump
Coactive: skills that may be performed in unison with other competitors, but do not involve direct confrontation or contact, eg. swimming
Interactive: skills performed where others are directly involved, such as game sports like rugby or football
Outline ability
Ability refers to a general train or capacity of the individual that is related to the performance and performance potential of a variety of skills or tasks
Perceptual abilities
Way in which we notice significant things that are happening around us and how quickly and effectively we make decisions about how to deal with them.
motor abilities
Personal characteristics or enduring traits which affect an individual's output.
Fleishman’s taxonomy
Fleishman’s Physical Proficiency (Gross Motor) Abilities - Health related
Extent flexibility
Dynamic flexibility
Explosive strength
Static strength
Dynamic strength
Trunk strength
Gross body coordination
Gross body equilibrium
Stamina
Fleishman’s Perceptual Motor (psychomotor) Abilities - Skill related
Reaction time
Response orientation
Speed of movement
Finger dexterity
Manual dexterity
Response integration
Technique (Skill = ability + technique)
Technique in general terms is a "way of doing". In the performance of a specific sports skill it is defined as the "the way in which that sports skill is performed".
Information Processing
In response to input stimuli, the performer perceives the stimulus, and recounts by executing an appropriate output, after their brain goes through the decision making process. Feedback is then often given, so that the response can be altered to be made better if necessary.
Signal detection process
Often referred to as the detection-comparison-recognition process (DCR).
Detection is the process of registering the stimulus through then sense organs
Comparison is the process of referring to the stimulus to the memory, to compare it to previously stored stimulus.
Recognition is the process of finding a corresponding stimulus in the memory.
The probability of detecting any given signal depends on the intensity of the signal compared to the intensity of the background noise. Individuals receive about 100,000 pieces of information per second. This information may be from the
environment or from within the person themselves.
Background noise: or the nonessential information. May be actual noise (sound of spectators) but covers all information that is not part of the signal.
This can be visual or from within yourself such as worrying about failing.
Intensity of the stimulus: level of the source.
Efficiency of the sense organs: the sensitivity to a stimulus may depend on the efficiency of the person’s sense organs (eyes,vestibular apparatus)
Early signal detection: also experience. Familiar signals are thought to be more readily detected than unfamiliar ones.
Improving signal detection: can be done by ensuring that the performer is optimally aroused but can also be aided by good selective attention.
Selective attention
SA is very important when accuracy or fast responses are required and can be improved by learning through past experiences and interaction with long-term memory.
Memory improvement
Rehearsal: required to get information into LTM, and to increase the chances of being able to recall that information.
Coding: information associated with images can be recalled better with the associations
Brevity: it is easier to remember short and specific details rather than long and vague information
Clarity: if the information is clear and understood, it will be easier to remember
Chunking: To some degree we do this automatically. It is literally a case of chunking several pieces of information into one meaningful chunk, which takes up less space in STM.
Response time (Response time = reaction time + movement time)
Response time: total time from the presentation of stimulus to the completion of the task.
Reaction time: is the amount of time between a stimulus and the first movement initiated response to it. Does not include movement time. Eg. hearing the gun pushing against the blocks.
Movement time: is the time taken to complete the task after it has been initiated. Begins when the body begins to move - not when then stimulus is applied - and ends when the task is completed.
Motor programme
Defined as a set of movements stored as a whole in the memory, regardless of whether feedback is used in their execution.
a whole plan (executive program/ motor program)
subroutines
coordination of subroutines
relegating executive programme to subroutine
motor programme from both open and closed loop perspectives
Open Loop Theory
This theory states the following:
Decisions are made in the brain
Information for one movement is sent in a single message
The muscles receive the message, where they then perform the movement.
Feedback may or may not be available but it doesn't control the action
Closed Loop Theory
On the other hand, this theory explains slow movements well but not fast movements.
Decisions are made in the brain
Information is sent to at different times
Information is received by the muscles to initiate the movement
Feedback is always available and is necessary for correction of movement patterns and to adjust to changing needs.
Outline the role of feedback in information processing models
Feedback is the term we use to describe information resulting from an action or response
12.1 Types of feedback
Intrinsic: is the physical feel of the movement as it is being performed. It is what is felt by the performer as they execute a skill or performance.
Extrinsic: is provided by external sources, during or after a performance. It includes things that the performer can hear or see.
KNOWLEDGE OF RESULTS (KR) & KNOWLEDGE OF PERFORMANCE (KP)
Knowledge of results
Post-response information concerning the outcome of the action
Long Jumper: Knowing the distance jumped
Track Athlete: Knowing the time ran
Knowledge of performance
Consists of post-response information concerning the nature of the movement
The feel of the movement
Knowledge of sensory consequences
POSITIVE AND NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
Positive: Can be telling someone that he or she has done well.
Negative: Prescriptive feedback has been shown to be effective following either a negative or positive approach
Principles of skill learning
13.1. Distinguish between learning and performance
Learning is a relatively permanent change in performance brought about by experience, excluding changes due to maturation and degeneration.
Performance is a temporary occurrence, fluctuating over time. A change in performance over time is often used to infer learning.
13.2. Phases (stages) of learning
Early phase: Cognitive = mental picture
Immediate phase: associative = practise and get feel of skill
Final phase: autonomous = perform automatically
13.3. factors that contribute to the different rates of learning
Physical demands: Has physical maturation but is not fit enough
Motivation: The learner wants to learn
Physical maturation: The learner is good at knowing when they are ready to gain a skill
Transfer
Transfer in skill acquisition is the influence of learning and/or performance of one skill on the learning and/or performance of another. If this influences a skill yet to be learned or performed it is called proactive transfer, if it influences the performance of a previous learnt skill it is called retroactive.
types of transfer
Skill to skill (one skill to the next)
Practice to performance (training to in game situation)
Abilities to skills (how natural abilities inform acquisition of skill)
Bilateral (from one limb to the other, left-to-right and right-to-left)
Stage to stage (from cognitive to associative, associative to autonomous)
Principles to skills (from theories to actual performance)
Practice
16. Teaching Styles.