Fact of the Day

6/23/21

What do you know about April Fool's Day? Other than the fact that it's a day we play pranks and practical jokes on each other, probably not much. So let's change that. The day, also called All Fools’ Day, has been celebrated for several centuries by different cultures. Its exact origins remain a mystery. Some historians speculate that April Fools’ Day dates back to 1582, when France switched from the Julian calendar (the calendar of Julius Caesar) to the Gregorian calendar. People who were slow to get the news or failed to recognize that the start of the new year had moved to January 1 and continued to celebrate it during the last week of March through April 1 became the butt of jokes and hoaxes. These included having paper fish placed on their backs and being referred to as “poisson d’avril” (April fish), said to symbolize a young, easily caught fish and a gullible person. Historians have also linked April Fools’ Day to ancient festivals such as Hilaria, which was celebrated in Rome at the end of March and involved people dressing up in disguises. There’s also speculation that April Fools’ Day was tied to the vernal equinox, or first day of spring in the Northern Hemisphere, when Mother Nature fooled people with changing, unpredictable weather. April Fools’ Day spread throughout Britain during the 18th century. In Scotland, the tradition became a two-day event, starting with “hunting the gowk,” in which people were sent on phony errands (gowk is a word for cuckoo bird, a symbol for fool) and followed by Tailie Day, which involved pranks played on people’s rear ends, such as pinning fake tails or “kick me” signs on them. In modern times, people have gone to great lengths to create elaborate April Fools’ Day hoaxes. Newspapers, radio and TV stations and Web sites have

participated in the April 1 tradition of reporting outrageous fictional claims that have fooled their audiences. In 1957, the BBC reported that Swiss farmers were experiencing a record spaghetti crop and showed footage of people harvesting noodles from trees; numerous viewers were fooled. In 1985, Sports Illustrated tricked many of its readers when it ran a made-up article about a rookie pitcher named Sidd Finch who could throw a fastball over 168 miles per hour. In 1996, Taco Bell, the fast-food restaurant chain, duped people when it announced it had agreed to purchase Philadelphia’s Liberty Bell and intended to rename it the Taco Liberty Bell. In 1998, after Burger King advertised a “Left-Handed Whopper,” scores of clueless customers requested the fake sandwich.

6/22/21

What is the only food that doesn't spoil? If you said honey, you'd be correct. So, what do I mean by "doesn't spoil?" Modern archeologists, excavating ancient Egyptian tombs, have often found pots of honey, thousands of years old, and yet still preserved. There are a few other examples of foods that keep–indefinitely–in their raw state: salt, sugar, dried rice are a few. But there’s something about honey; it can remain preserved in a completely edible form, and while you wouldn’t want to chow down on raw rice or straight salt, one could dip into a thousand year old jar of honey and enjoy it, without preparation, as if it were a day old. So what makes it last so long? Honey in its natural form is very low in moisture. Very few bacteria or microorganisms can survive in an environment like that, they just die. But what IS honey and why is it low in moisture? Some people

mistakenly refer to it as bee poop, but that's not the case. It would be more accurate to call it bee vomit. Honey comes from nectar — a sugary liquid — that is extracted from flowers using a bee's long, tube-shaped tongue. When a honeybee returns to the hive, it passes the nectar to another bee by regurgitating the liquid into the other bee's mouth. This regurgitation process is repeated until the partially digested nectar is finally deposited into a honeycomb. To get all that extra water out of their honey, bees set to work fanning the honeycomb with their wings in an effort to speed up the process of evaporation. Another reason it last so long is that when the bees regurgitate the nectar from their mouths into the combs to make honey is creates small amounts of hydrogen peroxide as a byproduct. For this reason, honey has been used for centuries as a medicinal remedy. Because it’s so thick and contains hydrogen peroxide, it creates the perfect barrier against infection for wounds. The earliest recorded use of honey for

medicinal purposes comes from Sumerian clay tablets, which state that honey was used in 30% of prescriptions. The ancient Egyptians used medicinal honey regularly, making ointments to treat skin and eye diseases. Honey was used to cover a wound or a burn or a slash, or something like that, because nothing could grow on it – so it was a natural bandage. Of course, honey isn't totally indestructible. Honey needs to be sealed to last "forever". If you leave it out, unsealed in a humid environment, it will spoil. As long as the lid stays on it and no water is added to it, honey will not go bad. At least that's the "buzz" on the street. 😂 Isn't that interest-"sting!" 😂

6/21/21

As the school year winds down, I've decided that for the last few Facts of the Day I will find something unique, odd or interesting that will likely have nothing to do with any history we're learning or have learned. So, let's keep it light and breezy, shall we? What’s your favorite cheese? Swiss? Cheddar? Provolone? How about Casu Marzu? Haven’t heard of it? Well after today you’ll never forget it. Casu Marzu is not your average cheese lover’s cheese. The name of this Sardinian speciality literally translates to “rotten cheese.” And if that’s not enough to scare you away, how about the fact that a block of this cheese contains a few thousand wriggling maggots? That’s right. Casu Marzu, otherwise known as walking cheese, is an Italian sheep’s milk variety with a little something extra. To produce this “unique” dairy product, cheese makers set it outside in the open – uncovered – and allow flies to lay eggs

inside of it. As the eggs hatch into maggots, they feed on the cheese. By doing so, they produce enzymes that promote fermentation and cause fats within the Casu Marzu to decompose and give it its unique flavor. So, what does it taste like? Is it “fly’? Some say it’s similar to an extremely ripe Gorgonzola. But is it safe to eat? Well, it is, as long as the maggots are still alive and kicking (or should I say squirming?) Once the maggots are dead, the Casu Marzu has gone bad – decayed to a point that’s too toxic for human consumption. In case you’re itching to try this Italian delicacy, you should know that Casu Marzu has been declared illegal and not in compliance with European Union hygienic standards. It is banned by Italian health laws and not sold in shops. There is increasing

concern of risk for intestinal larval infection. Once ingested, it’s possible for the larvae to pass through the human stomach without dying (sometimes stomach acids aren’t enough to kill them). In that case, the maggots may take up residency in the intestines for some time. They can cause serious lesions and bore through intestinal walls, resulting in abdominal pain, nausea, vomiting, and bloody diarrhea. Despite the health warnings, people in Sardinia say they’ve been eating Casu Marzu for hundreds of years without any problem. In fact, the Italian cheese is often brought out for special occasions like birthdays, bachelor parties, and weddings. So if it’s not legal to sell in shops, how do people obtain the cheese? Mountain shepherds continue to produce it in small quantities and then they sell it on the black market. If after all this info, you still want to find a way to find it and try it, there is one final note of caution. Some people wear eye

protection when eating Casu Marzu because the maggots are known to jump as high as six inches and straight toward the eyeballs with exact precision. Bon Appetit!

6/18/21

The ruins of Machu Picchu are one of the most beautiful and mysterious ancient sites in the world. While the Inca people certainly used the Andean mountain top, erecting many hundreds of stone structures from the early 1400's, legends and myths indicate that Machu Picchu (meaning 'Old Peak' in the native language) was revered as a sacred place from a far earlier time. Whatever its origins, the Inca turned the site into a small (5 square miles) but extraordinary city. Invisible from below and completely self-contained, surrounded by agricultural terraces that could feed the population, and watered by natural springs, Machu Picchu seems to have been utilized by the Inca as a secret ceremonial city, that was built for the emperor Pachacuti. The cloud shrouded ruins have palaces, baths, temples, storage rooms and some 150 houses, all in a remarkable state of preservation. Many of the building blocks used to build the site weigh 50 tons or more yet are so precisely sculpted and fitted together so well that the mortarless joints will not permit the insertion of even a thin knife blade. One of Machu Picchu's primary functions

was that of astronomical observatory. The Intihuatana stone (meaning 'Hitching Post of the Sun') has been shown to be a precise indicator of the date of the two equinoxes. At midday on March 21st and September 21st, the sun stands almost directly above the pillar, creating no shadow at all. At this precise moment the sun "sits with all his might upon the pillar" and is for a moment "tied" to the rock. At these periods, the Incas held ceremonies at the stone in which they "tied the sun" to halt its movement in the sky. Legends tell that when a sensitive person touches their forehead to the Intihuatana stone it opens their vision to the spirit world. Intihuatana stones were the supremely sacred objects of the Inca people and were systematically searched for and destroyed by the Spaniards. When the Intihuatana stone was broken at an Inca shrine, the Inca believed that the deities of the place died or departed. However, the Spaniards never found Machu Picchu, even though they suspected its existence. This was probably because the city was shrouded in clouds and located 8,000 feet above sea level. By the way, that's so high that some people that travel there suffer from altitude sickness. Symptoms are heart pounding and shortness of breath, headaches, loss of appetite, extreme tiredness, sleeplessness and often nausea.

6/17/21

The Inca had the largest empire in South America, they had the ability to successfully perform skull surgery, and they had the largest system of roads of their time period. Which makes it hard to believe that the one thing they didn't have was a written language. So how can you control a vast empire and spread necessary information when you can't write anything down? The Inca found a way. First, they relied on their road system. It stretched through the Inca Empire for a total of 25,000 miles and included complex suspension bridges. The road was essential in order to move people, food, armies, and information

across Inca lands. To transport these things, the Inca employed road runners, or chasqui. At a young age, boys that fit a certain physical profile were selected to be chasquis, which was a great honor. Then they would constantly train to improve their stamina and lung capacity, because high in the Andes Mountains the air is thinner and there is less oxygen. Inca chasquis ran alone, and carried orders and news from one end of the empire to the other by running messages in a relay between the cities. Their most important client was the Sapa Inca, or emperor. Sometimes the runners carried special goods in their bags for Inca royalty, such as fresh fish and oysters. More importantly, they provided the emperor with information. And messages always reached the Sapa Inca accurately. If it was discovered that a message was not accurate, punishment was severe, for example you could be thrown off a cliff. Without these specially trained Inca mailmen, controlling the vast Inca Empire would have been next to impossible. Each runner would run for six to nine miles along the famous Inca roads. There were little relay station buildings spaced along the roads where fresh runners watched and waited for the arrival of the messenger. As he approached the relay station, the runner blew loudly on a conch shell to alert the next runner to get ready. The next runner would appear, running along side the first. Without stopping, the first runner told the second runner the

message. The second runner then sped ahead until he reached the next relay station. In this way, 25 runners could cover about 150 miles in one day, and about 1,250 miles in a week. And all this while wearing sandals. You have to admit, that's quite a "feet!"

6/16/21

Mesoamericans seemed to have a unique relationship with skulls. Earlier, we learned about how the Mayans would play the game of Pok-a-tok and sometimes use the skull of the losers as the core of a new rubber ball. Today, we'll learn how the Inca possibly became the first civilization to

master the art of surgery on the skull. According to a 2008 study, Inca surgeons in ancient Peru commonly and successfully removed portions of patient's skulls to treat head injuries. This was done to relieve swelling of the brain, which can be fatal. Of course, they weren't always so good at it. Many of the older skulls showed no evidence of bone healing following the operation, meaning they died on the table. However, by the 1400s the success rate is believed to have jumped to 90 percent. This leads to a series of questions. 1) How did they get so good? Well, practice makes perfect and they had lots of practice. So far, one in six skulls studied shows signs of having the surgery. 2) Why so many? Well, the Inca didn't have iron weapons, which were more likely to cause a swift death. But with no such weapons, the Inca relied on clubs and slingshots, which resulted in more head trauma. 3) How did they make the holes? While methods varied over time, Inca surgeons eventually settled on a scraping technique. Basically, they scraped until they made a hole. OUCH! 4) Oh my goodness that sounds painful. How could they do that without anesthetics? Good question. They did use things like medicinal plants and maize beer to help with the pain, but it still hurt. Especially for the skull they found that had undergone the procedure SEVEN times. Again, OUCH! And lastly, 5) Did they do anything else with

6/15/21

What do Darth Vader, the Roman goddess of love and the ancient Mayans have in common? Believe it or not they're all linked. First, let's take a look at the ancient Mayans. Their empire, much like ancient Greece, was a collection of city-states that each had their own leaders. They were constantly fighting each other for control over natural resources like water, timber, arable land and wild game. Most experts acknowledge that some of these wars were planned in

accordance with the positions of objects in the night sky, particularly the planet Venus. When Venus, which was the name of the Roman goddess of love, appeared in the sky before dawn it was considered an evil omen. The Mayans took this as a sign to attack their neighbors. Archaeologists have long referred to such astronomically-inspired attacks as...wait for it...STAR WARS! That's right, writer/director George Lucas got the idea for his 1977 blockbuster based on the beliefs of the ancient Mayans. And, like in the film, wars of this kind weren't small battles, but all out assaults designed to completely wipe out their enemies. Captured warriors were taken as slaves and captured scribes, the official writers for the enemies ruling family, would have their fingers broken so they couldn't write their version of events. In fact, the movie pays tribute to its roots by filming the final scene at the ruins of the Mayan city of Tikal.

6/14/21

What do basketball and soccer have in common with ritual decapitation, human sacrifice and flowers? A lot, but let's not get a-HEAD of ourselves. First, the flowers. Rubber trees were plentiful in Central America, but the sap from the tree was too sticky to make a proper rubber ball. That is until

someone figured out that you could add juice from the morning glory plant and the mixture would make a playable rubber ball. Soon after, the Mesoamericans used the bouncy ball to invent the first ever team sport, called Pok-a-Tok. The game consisted of two teams (exact numbers varied) that would each try to score points by hitting certain marked spots on the court with the ball. In fact, it was so popular that almost every Mesoamerican city had an "I"

shaped court in the center of their town (there are 1,300 known courts in Mesoamerica). It was so popular, in part, because the contests were a ritual, political and social activity. While the exact rules aren't known, the game resembled soccer because in most versions of the game you could use your feet, legs and hips, but not your hands. It was like basketball because at each end of the court there was a concrete hoop that you tried to guide the ball through that

would virtually end the game. Now, about that decapitation and human sacrifice. Sometimes the losing team, or the captain of the losing team, would be sacrificed at the top of a pyramid. They would be decapitated, and sometimes the loser's skull would be covered in rubber and it would make the center of a new ball. It definitely gave a new meaning to the term "getting your head in the game," #highschoolmusical #squadgoals #zacandcorbin4ever

6/11/21

One strange fact about medieval Europe is that sometimes, animals could be arrested and tried for alleged crimes. You read that correctly. For example, in the fall of 1457, villagers in Savigny, France witnessed a sow and six piglets attack and kill a 5-year-old boy and the animals were put on trial in a

court of law. And it wasn’t for a show trial—this was the real deal, equipped with a judge, two prosecutors, eight witnesses, and a defense attorney for the accused swine. Witness testimony proved beyond reasonable doubt that the sow had killed the child. The piglets’ role, however, was less clear. Although splattered with blood, they were never seen directly attacking the boy. The judge sentenced the sow to be hanged by her hind feet from a “gallows tree.” The piglets, by contrast, were exonerated. Such a case might seem bizarre to modern observers, but animal trials were commonplace public events in medieval and early modern Europe. Pigs, goats, horses, and dogs that allegedly broke the law were routinely subjected to the same legal proceedings as humans. In a court of law, they were treated as persons. Judges routinely considered animals’ personal

circumstances before making a legal decision. Take the exonerated piglets in the above story. The judge said they were innocent not only on technical grounds (no witnesses came forth to confirm that the piglets attacked), but also because the pigs were immature, and thus poorly positioned to make clear choices. Furthermore, they were raised by a bad momma pig, he indicated, and thus unable to internalize the proper codes of conduct for village-dwelling piglets. BTW, this is not a joke! He actually said this. What trials like this strongly suggest is that many of the citizens of the time deemed the animals among them worthy of human justice primarily because they had, like humans, the free will to make basic choices. The only animal that they didn't put on trial was cows, because putting one of those on trial would be "udderly" ridiculous 😂.

6/10/21

In a deck of playing cards, do the face cards actually represent historical figures? If so, who is the King of Hearts? The answer to the first question is yes. You'll have to wait for the second answer. First, it should be known that the current

cards we play with are French in origin. French playing cards have the four familiar suits; Hearts, Clubs, Diamonds and Spades. Other decks of cards use varying suits like Cups, Acorns, Bells and Shields. Second, the face cards on French playing cards were specifically designed to represent historical/mythological people. For instance, the Jack of Clubs was supposed to represent Sir Lancelot, the best friend of the mythical King Arthur and the Queen of Spades is supposed to be the Greek goddess Athena. The remainder of the jacks and queens are figures less well known to modern civilizations, but three of the four kings will likely ring a bell to just about everyone. The Kings of Spades is the biblical King David (you know, the guy that killed Goliath), the King of Diamonds is Julius

Caesar, the King of Clubs is Alexander the Great. So who is the King of Hearts supposed to be? The King of Hearts is supposed to represent Charlemagne, aka Charles the Great. So, who exactly is this Charlemagne fellow? He was the ruler of a powerful Germanic tribe called the Franks, and ruled from 771-814 CE. During his reign he built an empire in Europe that was the largest since the fall of Rome more than 300 years earlier. Also, after saving Pope Leo III from an angry mob, he was given the title Holy Roman Emperor in 800 CE. Shortly after his death in 814 CE, the monarchy lost power and Europe would soon become a feudal society thanks to a combination of a weak central government and constant attacks from outside forces.

6/9/21

According to available historical records, people of medieval ages used to enjoy around eight weeks of holidays in a year during which they were considered free from any work. As a result, there was plenty of time for peasants and nobles to enjoy and entertain themselves. In addition, medieval people also scheduled specific times for sports. However, almost all sports of the medieval ages were designed with a motive of increasing the fighting capacities of the people as soldiers. For example, King Edward III introduced a law which made archery practice mandatory every Sunday to ensure the he always had a steady supply of archers available.

Another example of this was medieval football. Medieval “mob football” is a term given to a collection of large-scale ball sports played in Europe throughout the Middle Ages. These sports varied slightly throughout Europe, though they typically shared the same format. Matches were organized between villages, and any number of citizens from each could participate in the game. At the start of the game, each team would attempt to capture the ball and take it back to their predetermined zone – often their village’s church porch. Such massive swarms of players often led to injuries such as broken limbs – and,

occasionally, deaths. Because of this, King Edward II actually banned the sport. In 1314 he issued a proclamation that said, in part “…there is great noise in the city caused by hustling over large balls from which many evils may arise which God forbid; we command and forbid, on behalf of the King, on pain of imprisonment, such game to be used in the city in the future.” Despite this, medieval mob football maintained a high level of popularity throughout Europe for several centuries. In its later history, these sports led to the development of modern sports including soccer, rugby, and American football.

6/8/21

Come up with a story about how your family acquired its last name. Your story is probably a bit more interesting than the reality behind most of the surnames we're familiar with. So what's the story behind surnames? Well, in the early years of the Middle Ages, most people in Europe lived in small farming villages. Everyone knew their neighbors, and there was little need for last names. But as the population expanded and the towns grew, a need arose to find ways to differentiate between two people who shared the same first name. Because the British were among the first Europeans to settle in North America, many modern American surnames can be traced back to medieval England, Scotland, Ireland, and Wales. Common adjectives used as surnames often referred to size - such as Little, Short, or Long—or to hair

color or complexion—such as White, Black, or Red (which evolved into Reed). Sometimes, an adjective was combined with a noun to form a byname, like Longfellow. A name might also refer to social status, such as Squire or Knight. And Palmer described a pilgrim who had returned from the Holy Land. That's because it was traditional for such pilgrims to bring back a palm leaf as a sort of souvenir. A surname could also be derived from your occupation. The

name Smith refers to someone who "smites", or works with metal. In German-speaking areas, a smith was name Schmidt. Someone who made goods out of wood was called Carpenter. In France that would be Charpentier whereas in Germany it would result in the surname Zimmerman. If you happened to make barrels for a living your last name might be Cooper. Names derived from the Gaelic tongue (related to Celtic language of Scotland) are less easily deciphered by modern English-speakers: Cameron means “crooked nose,” Connolly means “valiant,” and Kennedy means “ugly head.” If you'd like to look up some other familiar surnames and their meanings, you can find some at this website.

6/7/21

What do Cruella de Vil, Voldemort and the Wicked Witch of the West all have in common? They're all famous villains. But what, if anything, does that have to do with medieval Europe? The word villain actually originated in medieval Europe. First, we need to familiarize ourselves with the feudal hierarchy. First, there was the king. Unlike the emperor in feudal Japan, the king did maintain a good deal of power. Then there were the Lords. Under them were the

Knights, the warrior class, followed by the largest group of people, the peasants. However, all peasants weren't created equally. Some peasants were called freemen, because they weren't beholden to a lord. Other peasants were slaves, while the largest group of peasants was called serfs, or villeins. Villain comes from the Old French vilain, meaning "farmhand", in the sense of someone who is bound to the soil of a villa. The same etymology produced villein. It referred to a person of less than knightly status and so it came to mean a person who was less than chivalrous. Since unchivalrous acts include such things as

treachery and murder, villain became used as a term of abuse and eventually took on its modern meaning. So when you say that someone is Chillin' like a Villain, what you're really saying is that they're relaxing just like a farmhand in medieval Europe, which ironically may have been one of the least relaxing jobs of the last 1,000 years.

6/4/21/

In early medieval England, people paid their rents with all kinds of things. One particularly bizarre item was prized by landlords: eels. The idea of accepting eels as rental payment may strike modern readers as unusual. But in early medieval England (1000–1300), eel-rents were commonplace. During the period, before there was enough available coinage to go around, landlords often accepted rental payments in goods such as eggs, ale, grain, and, especially, eels. The fish were remarkably plentiful, accounting for 25 to 50 per cent of the fish in England’s rivers. And lords all across England wanted their share of this abundance. A comprehensive survey in 1086 reveals that the largest rental payment came from the village of Harmston, in Lincolnshire, whose residents owed the Earl Hugh of Chester 75,000 eels every year. At the end of the 11th century there were more than 540,000 eels being paid as rent i

n England annually. However, people did not usually trade in live eels, or even freshly killed ones. In most cases the fish were cured, through some combination of salting, smoking and drying, so that they could be more easily transported and stored. The eels needed to be preserved so that tenants could keep them unspoiled until rent was due, and the landlords could then stockpile them until they were ready to be eaten. This form of payment lessened in popularity during the 14th century because of the changes that followed the Black Death. After 1349 red meat became increasingly available to more people, as empty fa

rmland was given over to use as pastures, increasing the number of animals. At the same time, the decreased population meant that there was more available currency in the area. Demand for eels dropped, and the century shows eel-rent totals of only about 34,000 fish. The 15th century saw a still sharper drop, and by the 16th century the practice was no longer acceptable because it had become "eel"-egal 😂.

6/3/21

What were the Dark Ages and exactly how dark were they? To answer the first question, the Dark Ages is the name for the time period between 476 CE and 1000 CE (also known as the Early Middle Ages). To answer the second question, not nearly as dark as many would have you believe. First of all, the Dark Ages is a reference to Europe, and not the larger world. During this time, in China the Tang and Song Dynasties were innovating things like gunpowder, paper money and moveable type, in Japan the first novel was being written during the Heian period, the Islamic empire was awash in new discoveries like Algebra and Arabic scholars were collecting the great works of the classical world to save them for future generations, and the Byzantine Empire was in full vigor. Heck even in Europe things weren't so bad. The life expectancy of Europeans during medieval times was slightly longer (30) than it was during the Roman

Empire (28). Also, the European university system evolved, teaching the arts, law, medicine and theology. In fact, the University of Bologna was founded in 1088 CE and it was the first ever to grant degrees. So why is it called the Dark Ages? Look no further than the decline of the Latin language as the reason. As German-speaking peoples mixed with the Roman population, Latin changed. While it was still the official language, it was no longer understood by most of the citizens. By the 800s, new languages like French and Spanish began to evolve from Latin. The term "Dark Ages" was originally coined in the 1330s by an Italian scholar named Petrarch to refer to the decline of Latin literature. The term was later taken by the protestant reformers (16th century) and then the members of the Enlightenment (18th century) as a derogatory term because they thought the people in that period of time were not as “enlightened” as they were.

6/2/21

The Black Death arrived in Europe by sea in October 1347 when 12 Genoese trading ships docked at the Sicilian port of Messina. Unfortunately, most of the sailors aboard the ships were dead, and those who were still alive were gravely ill. They were overcome with fever, unable to keep food down and delirious from pain. Strangest of all, they were covered in mysterious black boils that oozed blood and pus and gave their illness its name. The Sicilian authorities hastily ordered the fleet of “death ships” out of the harbor, but it was too late: Over the next five years, the mysterious Black Death would kill more than 20 million people in Europe–almost one-third of the continent’s population. To put that into context, that would be like the entire populations of New

York City, Los Angeles, Chicago, Houston, Philadelphia and Phoenix dying over the next five years. The disease was spread by infected fleas hitching rides on rats, but no one knew that at the time. According to one doctor, for example, “instantaneous death occurs when the aerial spirit escaping from the eyes of the sick man strikes the healthy person standing near and looking at the sick.” Because they did not understand the biology of the disease, many people believed that the Black Death was a punishment from God. To get on God's "good side", some people tried to purge their communities of heretics and other troublemakers–so, for example, many thousands of Jews were massacred in 1348 and 1349. Meanwhile, in a panic, healthy people did all they could to avoid the sick. Doctors refused to see patients; priests refused to administer last rites. Shopkeepers closed stores. Many people fled the cities for the countryside, but even there they could not escape the disease: It affected cows, sheep, goats, pigs and chickens as well as people. In

fact, so many sheep died that one of the consequences of the Black Death was a European wool shortage, causing some shepherds to want to get the "flock" out of the region 😂 . In another effort to gain God's forgiveness, some men joined processions of flagellants that traveled from town to town and engaged in public displays of penance and punishment: They would beat themselves and one another with heavy leather straps studded with sharp pieces of metal while the townspeople looked on. For 33 1/2 days, the flagellants repeated this ritual three times a day. Then they would move on to the next town and begin the process over again. Unsurprisingly this didn't stop the disease from ravaging Europe. By the end of 1350, the plague subsided. There were a few outbreaks over the next few centuries,

and outbreaks still pop up around the globe. Thanks to an increased knowledge of the infection and how to treat it, death tolls have been nowhere near the scale of what happened in medieval Europe, but it's still a deadly illness. A few years ago, 124 people in Madagascar died from the infection.

6/1/21

During our study of the birth of Islam, you learned that the Crusades were a collection of wars in which Christian dominated countries fought Muslim dominated countries for control of Jerusalem and other lands. Depending on which skirmishes you decide to count, there were about nine individual crusades between 1096-1291 CE. By the way, if you want to keep score, the Muslims pretty much won all but the First Crusade (although the Third Crusade could be considered a draw). All of the Crusades hold historical significance, but which one was the most

interesting? That would be the one that happened in 1212 CE. That was when a 12-year-old boy named Stephen of Cloyes led what was called the Children's Crusade. Little Stephen claimed he had visions from God that he should take child soldiers to the Holy Land to win back control from the Muslims. Cloyes was able to convince scores of French children that God would protect them and help them capture Jerusalem. Why would they believe him? He preached to children that he had received a letter from Jesus instructing him to go on a crusade. In fact, he was so convincing that he amassed an army of 30,000 children, and adults of all ages. He also told his followers that on their march to glory, any waterway they encountered would immediately part for them, like the Red Sea did for Moses and his followers. Unsurprisingly, that turned out not to be true. When they reached the Mediterranean Sea the waters didn't recede and they had to board seven ships to continue their journey. They were never heard from again -- sort of. Many years later a priest returned from traveling around northern Africa and claimed to have met some of the surviving children (now adults). He claimed that two of the seven ships had sunk killing all on board and that pirates had captured the other five ships and the survivors were sold into slavery. Oddly enough, that wasn't the last time medieval France would let a child lead them to war. About 200 years later, when France and England were embroiled in the Hundred Years War, a 13-year-old girl name Joan of Arc began to hear voices, which she determined had been sent by God to give her a mission of overwhelming importance: to save France by defeating its arch-nemesis, England. She was so convincing, that she was not only able to

generate a devout following, but she was also able to convince local leaders to give her control of an army by the time she was 16. Unlike little Stevie Steve of Cloyes, she actually experienced some success. She won a major battle in the Hundred Years War (the Battle of Orleans) and became a cult hero. Unfortunately for Joan, nothing gold can stay, and she was eventually defeated, tried for witchcraft, forced to sign a confession that she'd never heard divine voices, and then, finally, she was burned at the stake.

5/26/21

One of the most famous samurai stories in Japan is that of the 47 Ronin, (also known as Chushingura). As the tale goes, in 1701 a nobleman named Asano Naganori was asked to help carry out certain formal duties at the shogun's court in Edo (now Tokyo). An arrogant official named Kira Yoshinaka, however, was so unhelpful and treated Asano with such open contempt that he lost his temper, drew his sword and attacked him. Because it was forbidden to use a sword inside the castle, Lord Asano was sentenced to death, and committed ceremonial suicide (seppuku). He was buried in a temple outside Edo and his estate was confiscated. The forty-seven samurai of Asano's bodyguard became ronin, or masterless samurai. They decided that their code of honor demanded revenge, and they would get that revenge, although it took them two years to plan it. By that time, the oldest of them, who was in his eighties, dropped out, but the remaining forty-six forced their way into Kira's house early on a cold winter morning at the end of January 1703. They found him hiding in an outhouse and killed him. In the action they also killed several of Kira's samurai, who defended him bravely. The triumphant ronin cut off Kira's head, carried it in a bucket a few miles to the temple and put it on their lord's grave. The authorities were in a difficult position. The ronin had acted in accordance with the warrior code, but they had also ignored the authority of the shogun, Tokugawa

Tsunayoshi. After much consideration, the ronin were ordered to commit seppuku. All of them, ranging in age from fifteen to seventy-seven, promptly obeyed. They became popular folk heroes and role models, and their story is a major theme of Japanese theatre, literature and cinema. They were buried in the same temple with their lord and their graves are a visitor attraction in the Sengakuji Temple in Tokyo.

5/25/21

Who here is familiar with the current Starz series American Gods, or the Neil Gaiman book of the same name? If not, the central premise of the book and series is that gods live among us in America. In fact, there are two types of gods. There are the old, mythical gods — like the African trickster Anansi, Odin (Thor's father), and Vulcan, the Roman god of fire and volcanoes — who arrived in America when their believers emigrated here years ago via slave ships, Viking ships, or whatever mode of transportation led them to our shores. These "American Gods" are fed by worship which means the modern age has been hard on these old Gods since belief in them has decreased. And since some of the older Gods are no longer fed by the beliefs of their followers, they're literally starving for attention. This has led to the older Gods being weakened, and some of them have ceased to exist, altogether. As that happened, our devotion to technology and celebrities has led to the creation of new gods

like Media, the goddess of TV and Technical Boy, the God of computers and the Internet. In Gaiman's world, the fight over worshipers culminates in a war between the old gods and the new gods. So what, if anything, does that have to do with medieval Japan? It does have something in common with the Japanese religion of Shinto. Shinto believes in nature spirits called kami, and like the Gods of Gaiman's story, a kami stops existing when no one believes in it anymore and reappears when a believer comes back. Also, the kami are ever changing in definition and scope. As the needs of the people have shifted, so too have the domains and roles of the various kami. Some examples of this are related to health, such as the kami of small pox whose role was expanded to include all contagious diseases, or the kami of boils and growths who has also come to preside over cancers and cancer treatments. In other words, the job descriptions of the gods change as the needs of the people change.

5/24/21

What do salt, loincloths, and nature spirits have in common? They all play a key role in the famous Japanese sport of sumo. First, we must look at the sport's origins. The earliest written records of sumo date back to 712 CE, although it's thought to have existed long before that as a Shinto ritual. As we learned earlier, Shinto is a Japanese religion/philosophy that has no single founder and believes that spirits, or kami, live in things like rocks, trees,

rivers and animals. Before communing with these spirits, followers try to purify themselves in a variety of ways, including washing their hands, rinsing out their mouths, or passing through a waterfall. When the male followers were submerged in water to purify themselves, they wore a loincloth very similar to the one sumo wrestlers wear today. At first, sumo was simply a ritual to honor the gods and ensure bountiful harvests. Eventually its popularity spread and rules were formulated and it became a spectator sport.

Still it has many connections to Shintoism; modern day sumo wrestlers, orrikishi, undergo a purification ceremony each time they enter the ring, prior to a match the wrestlers raise their legs and stomp their feet repeatedly to scare away evil spirits, they sometimes wear a loincloth that has fringes that mimic the sacred ropes in front of Shinto shrines, and before the bout begins they toss salt into the air as a final act of purification. Even the canopy over the sumo

ring resembles the roof of a Shinto temple. It's no wonder that a sport based on an ancient Japanese religion has become the nation's pastime. In fact, Japanese people can never get enough of the sport, they always want "sumo".

5/21/21

What is a ninja? A ninja is a medieval Japanese warrior that was trained in the martial art of ninjutsu. They date back to over eight hundred years ago when the ninja families (many of whom were peasant farmers) developed their skills in order to protect themselves against the likes of samurai warriors. It is this humble beginning that gives ninjutsu its very unique style: escape if you can, if you can’t, kill. There was nothing unethical to the ninja – they would throw sand in the enemy’s eyes, stab them when they were down, anything to protect life and limb. Over time the ninjas were used as spies, bodyguards

and assassins for hire. Of course, some of the things you’ve heard about ninjas are fabrications or exaggerations. For instance, they never dressed in all black while wearing masks. Ninjas relied on stealth, and while wearing all black at night could be advantageous, ninjas would wear clothing typical of the time so that they could blend in and avoid detection. Another myth is that their ninja throwing stars, known as shuriken, were deadly weapons. Shuriken are used as a secondary weapon – either to slash or stab. When they are thrown it is normally to cause a distraction. In fact, shuriken were

originally household items, such as washers and coins that were used to distract and were not usually sharp. One last myth about the ninjas was that they were all male. There was a tradition of female ninjas. The primary function of a female ninja was espionage. They would often find legitimate service positions in the households of enemies in order to accumulate knowledge by gaining trust, or overhearing conversations. They would also facilitate assassinations if needed. One historically accepted example of this is Mochizuki Chiyome, the 16th century noblewoman with ninja roots who was tasked by a local warlord with the job of recruiting women to create a secret network of a few hundred female spies. There were also female samurai. The Japanese bushi class (the social class samurai came from) did feature women who participated in combat alongside their male counterparts. Recent research

suggests that may have happened a lot more frequently than we think. When remains of an 1850 battle site were recently DNA-tested, 35 out of the 105 bodies were female. Research on other sites has yielded similar results. From that small sample size we shouldn't assume that 33% of all samurai warriors were women, but it shows that it wasn't all that rare for medieval Japanese women to serve in combat.

5/20/21

What do Leonardo DiCaprio and singer Celine Dion have in common with the samurai Code of Bushido? Those three things are connected by a "titanic" thread -- literally. DiCaprio was the star of the Titanic and Dion sang the film's world famous theme song My Heart Will Go On, but to link them to Code of Bushido, we must take a look at a man

named Masabumi Hosono. During the Titanic's first and only voyage, Hosono was the lone Japanese passenger on board. He had been sent abroad by Japan's Transportation Ministry to study foreign railroad systems and was on his way home when the ship ran right into a massive iceberg. Eventually, Hosono was awakened by a knock at the door of his second-class cabin and told to put on his life vest. Hosono managed to slip past a guard and make his way to the lifeboats, where women and children were being loaded first. "I tried to prepare myself for the last moment with no agitation, making up my mind not to leave anything disgraceful as a Japanese," he explained in a letter to his wife that he wrote on the rescue boat back to New York. "But still I found myself looking for and waiting for any possible chance to survive." That chance came moments later, when the officer loading lifeboat No. 10 could not coax any more women or children into the boat. "Room for two more!" the officer called out. Hosono watched as another man jumped into the boat. "I myself was deep in desolate thought that I would no more be able to see my beloved wife and children, since there was

no alternative for me than to share the same destiny as the Titanic," he wrote. "But the example of the first man making a jump led me to take this last chance." Thanks to his decision his heart did go on, but at a price. For his seemingly sensible actions, he was blasted in the Japanese press because he had done a dishonorable thing. He had chosen to get on the life boats when women and children were still on the ship, and to make matters worse he had done so in public -- on a European passenger liner with the eyes of the world upon him. Hosono was denounced as a coward by Japanese newspapers and fired from his job with the Transportation Ministry. The ministry hired him back a few weeks later, but his career never recovered. College professors denounced him as immoral, and he was written up in Japanese textbooks as a man who had disgraced his

country. There were even public calls for him to commit seppuku - the ritual act of suicide performed by samurai - as means of saving face. Hosono never did kill himself, but there must have been times when he wished he'd died on the Titanic. He never spoke of the experience again, and forbade any mention of it in his home. After he died in 1939, the letter to his wife, written on what is believed to be the only surviving piece of Titanic stationery, sat in a drawer until 1997, when the blockbuster film Titanic staged its Tokyo premiere. Then the Japanese public's interest in the doomed liner's lone Japanese passenger was renewed again, although this time his story was met with much more sympathy.

5/19/21

What do bananas, coconuts and the Code of Bushido have in common? They all sustained a WWII Japanese military officer by the name of Hiroo Onoda. In late December 1944 Onoda, a second lieutenant, was dropped off on the strategic island of Lubang in the Philippines. His orders were to sabotage harbor installations and an airstrip in order to disrupt a coming American invasion. Within the next few months, American forces landed and drove the entire Japanese Army off the island. Well, ALMOST the entire Japanese Army. Onoda's superior, Maj. Yoshimi Taniguchi gave the order to stand and fight. “It may take three years, it may take five, but whatever happens we’ll come back for you,” the major promised. He would keep his promise, although it took him 29 years to do it. Following the end of the war, Onoda remained on the island, unaware the war was over. Leaflets had been dropped throughout the islands announcing the end of WWII, but Onoda thought they were lies, propaganda dropped from the sky by the enemy. So he, along with three other remaining soldiers, went on with their mission, continuing to sabotage buildings, farms, and even killed some of the native islanders they thought were enemy

soldiers. They survived by building bamboo huts and living off of mainly bananas and coconuts. Considering themselves to be at war, they evaded American and Filipino search parties and attacked islanders they took to be enemy guerrilla fighters; about 30 inhabitants were killed in skirmishes with the Japanese soldiers over the years. One of the enlisted men surrendered to Filipino forces in 1950, and two others were shot dead, one in 1954 and another in 1972, by island police officers searching for the renegades. Yet even when he was a lone fighter he still continued carrying out his mission to the best of his ability. Why? Because the military code of the Japanese Army at the time was quite similar to the ancient samurai Bushido Code, and death before dishonor or surrender, and following orders no matter what, is a major part of a warrior's mentality. A Japanese warrior fights until he's told by his commanding officer not to. Which is why when Onoda was discovered,

several attempts were made to get him to give up, but he refused. In the end, his former major, Yoshimi Taniguchi, had to be flown in from Japan to give Onoda the order to surrender. At the news, Onoda saluted and wept. When he returned home, he was greeted to a "Hiroo's" welcome, because nobody better defined the essence of what it means to be a modern day samurai that Hiroo Onoda.

5/18/21

How has the geography of Japan helped protect it from invasion? The easy answer is that it was far enough from the Asian mainland to help stave off attacks. But there's more to in that that. Japan is located in the Northwestern Pacific Basin, which happens to be the most active tropical cyclone basin on Earth, accounting for almost one-third of the world's annual tropical cyclones. It's also located in an area called the Ring of Fire, which has 452 volcanoes (more than 75% of the world's active and dormant volcanoes). Also, about 90% of the world's earthquakes and 81% of the world's largest earthquakes occur along the Ring of Fire. So Japan was no stranger to typhoons and tsunamis. And while they've been responsible for unimaginable damage to Japan, sometimes they've worked to protect the island nation. For example,

shortly after Kublai Khan defeated China and formed the Yuan Dynasty, he decided to set his sights on the Land of the Rising Sun. In 1274 CE, the Mongols launched their first invasion of Japan by sending between 500 to 900 vessels and 40,000 warriors. They were beating the Japanese badly, but retreated to their ships to finish the invasion the next morning. During the night, thanks to an advancing low pressure system, a typhoon struck and destroyed almost all of the Mongol fleet. They had to take the few remaining ships and go back home but they promised to come back and finish the job. So in 1281, Khan sent a fleet of 4,400 ships and an estimated 70,000 to 140,000 soldiers. As they prepared to launch their assault another huge typhoon hit the island

nation and destroyed the Mongol fleet. The Japanese believed these typhoons were sent to them by the gods, particularly Raijin, their god of lightning, thunder and storms and so they called them kamikaze (divine wind). As you may be aware, the term kamikaze was later used in WWII to refer to the Japanese suicide pilots who deliberately crashed their planes into enemy targets, usually ships. So why were they called kamikaze? The Japanese imagined that these pilots would be the "divine wind" that would once again sweep their enemy from the seas. In English, the word has now become a way of describing someone who takes great risk with little concern for their safety.

5/17/21

Shinto is one of the main religions of Japan. Its primary focus is on nature and nature spirits, and practitioners of this faith believe in purification rituals using water to cleanse themselves. Exactly why is that? Well, it all starts from the earliest moments of the creation of the world if you believe the origin story of Japan. It began with Izanagi and Izanami (Japanese: “He Who Invites” and “She Who Invites”). They were the eighth pair of brother-and-sister gods to appear

after heaven and earth separated out of chaos. Supposedly they stood on the floating bridge of heaven and stirred the primeval ocean with a heavenly jeweled spear. When they pulled the spear out of the water the falling droplets formed the first landmass. The two siblings decided that they wished to unite—often interpreted as marriage—and tried to create a family of their own. Their first attempt at reproduction resulted in a child so deformed that he was referred to as “Leech Child”, so they set him adrift in a boat. They attributed his deformity to the fact that during their courtship Izanami was the first to speak, and as a woman that was a bad omen. So, before they started trying for Kid #2 they reenacted the courtship process, but this time Izanagi was the first to speak. It was a success and they

produced numerous islands and deities. Things were going well until Izanami was fatally burned in the act of giving birth to the fire god, Kagutsuchi, and went to Yomi, the land of darkness. The grief-stricken Izanagi followed her there, but she had eaten the food of that place and could not leave. She requested that he not look at her, so she became angry when he lit a fire and saw her rotting and covered with maggots. A horrified Izanagi fled, with a host of women and then Izanami herself in pursuit. After reaching the entrance to Yomi, Izanagi placed a stone across it, thus sealing in Izanami and breaking their union. After the ordeal, Izanagi bathed in the sea to purify himself from contact with the dead. As he bathed, a number of deities came into being. The sun goddess Amaterasu was born from his left eye, the moon god Tsukiyomi was born from his right eye, and the storm god Susanoo was born from his nose. In the Shinto religion, Izanagi’s bath is regarded as the founding of harai, the important ritual purification practices of Shinto.

5/14/21

What does acacia wood, Raiders of the Lost Ark and Africa have in common? The answer is the Ark of the Covenant. The what of the what?! To clarify, the Ark of the Covenant is

perhaps the most sought after biblical artifact in the world. It was a box that was built, supposedly to God's own instructions. Seriously, the size of the box and the materials, primarily acacia wood, were specified by God him/her self. The purpose of the Ark was to hold the original 10 Commandments. Because of this it was imbued with magical and mysterious powers. In fact, it stated in the Bible that possessing the artifact can lead to miraculous events like crumbling the walls of Jericho. Unfortunately, after the Babylonians sacked Jerusalem in 586 CE, it was lost to history forever. But its allure was so strong that, like the Holy Grail, people have spent lifetimes searching for it. There was even a movie made about how

Nazis were trying to find the biblical relic to help make them an invincible force, only to be foiled by Indiana Jones. Maybe you've heard of it. But has the Ark really been lost forever, or is it hidden away, protected by a devout order of Christians? That is what some Christians in the eastern African country of Ethiopia would like you to believe. They will tell you that the

Ark rests in the St. Mary of Zion cathedral, a chapel in the small town of Axum. It is said to have arrived nearly 3,000 years ago and has been allegedly guarded by a succession of monks who, once chosen, are forbidden to set foot outside the chapel grounds until they die. Is it true? No one knows for sure because church officials won't allow it to be studied for authenticity. In fact, the only one allowed to see it is the Guardian of the Ark, and NO ONE is allowed to see or speak to him.

5/13/21

What do Gummy Bears, Coke, Pepsi, and mummies all have in common? They're all made using the same ingredient...sort of. First, we must talk about the acacia tree, which is native to tropical and subtropical regions of the world, particularly Australia (there called wattles) and

Africa, particularly in the west. However, it's not what's on the outside of the tree that links these products together, but what's on the inside. Gummy Bears, Coke and Pepsi are made with the sap of the acacia tree, which is called "Gum Arabic" due to the fact its popularity increased thanks to Arab trade. But what is its purpose? Gum Arabic an emulsifier (something that allows liquids that have a hard time mixing -- like the sugar and water in soda -- to stay mixed). Imagine opening a soda and finding all the sugar had fallen to the bottom and crystalized. That's what would happen if it wasn't for gum arabic. So, basically it's glue, but glue you can eat which is why it's also found in chocolates, marshmallows and jellybeans.

But it has non-eating uses, too. It is found in shoe polish, crayons, carbonless copy paper, scratch and sniff perfume advertisements, laundry detergents, aspirin, and it also makes newspaper print more cohesive. Seriously, there's almost nothing it isn't used for. In fact, it's been around so long that the Egyptians used it as an adhesive when wrapping mummies. So the next time you're downing a soda or eating a sweet snack, remember that you might be swallowing mummy glue. Edible mummy glue, but mummy glue, nonetheless.

5/12/21

Thanks to yesterday’s FOTD, you now know how Ibn Battuta was a young Muslim man that was born in Morocco, and that had quite an itch to travel. Since he began his journey by heading to Mecca, much of his eagerness to travel can be attributed to a strong devotion to his faith. But is that the whole story? Not really. Battuta had other motives for his travel. The men in his family were legal scholars and he was raised with a focus on education; however, there was no “madrasa,” or college of higher learning, in his hometown of Tangier, Morocco. Thus, his urge to travel was spurred by interest in finding the best teachers and the best libraries,

which were then in Alexandria and Cairo, Egypt and Damascus, Syria. Still, whatever the reason, the fact is that he traveled around the world relentlessly. And how do know about all of his trips around the globe? Because when he returned to Morocco, the local sultan commissioned a young literary scholar to record Ibn Battuta’s experiences. The scholar had to compose the whole story into literary form, using a type of Arabic literature called a rihla, indicating a journey in search of divine knowledge. The two men collaborated for two years, with Ibn Battuta telling his story and drafting notes about it. Ibn Battuta possessed an extraordinary memory, but he also got some facts and dates confused. One specific part of the book (his trip to China) appears to be factually inconsistent. Battuta’s narrative about China occupies less than 6 percent of his whole story. It is so sketchy and confusing that some scholars doubt that he even went to China and believe he merely fabricated at least part of his account. In any case, he

admits in his book that in China he was unable to understand much of what he saw. Still, his travel journal is widely viewed as a solid piece of historical writing in the larger world, but it is specifically revered in the Islamic world. So much so that in 2005, the Ibn Battuta Mall opened up in Dubai. The mall, which focuses of the travels of Ibn Battuta, has 275 retailers making it the world’s largest themed mall. The mall is divided into six courts that reflect the different regions through which Ibn Battuta traveled: Andalusia (Spain), Tunisia (Africa), Egypt, Persia (Iraq), India and China (which many believe he never traveled to in the first place. Nevertheless, the mall is EXTREMELY impressive and can be viewed here...Ibn Battuta Mall.

5/11/21

All Muslims, if they are healthy and wealthy enough, have to make a pilgrimage to Mecca. Once is enough for most Muslims, but for some, once isn't enough. Take the curious

case of Ibn Battuta? He was born in Morocco, in 1304 CE. When he was around twenty years old, he went on hajj to Mecca. It took him about eight or nine months to get to there, and he had many adventures along the way - he got sick, he was attacked by robbers, and he even got married! But after Ibn Battuta got to Mecca, he decided he liked to travel and he wasn't in any hurry to go home. So he left Mecca for the east. He went first to Mesopotamia (modern Iraq). Then he went on to Persia (modern Iran). After Persia, he joined another group of people going west on hajj, and traveled with them until he got back to Mecca (he would make the pilgrimage a total of SEVEN TIMES.) He then toured Yemen then crossed the Red Sea over to see East Africa. He sailed down the coast of East Africa and visited Ethiopia. Eventually, he went back to Mecca again for a rest. After a few months in Mecca, he visited Egypt, and then went north to Turkey. From Turkey, he went east to Central Asia. In Central Asia, Ibn Battuta was able to travel with the Mongol ruler all across the continent. He then traveled south across Afghanistan and

went to India in 1334. There, he began working for the Sultan as a teacher and judge for seven years. But then the Sultan sent Ibn Battuta to China as his ambassador. So Ibn Battuta set out AGAIN! It took him several years to get to China: he was attacked by bandits and pirates several times, and lost all his belongings in shipwrecks more than once. By the time he got to China, it was 1345, and Ibn Battuta was forty years old, and had been away from home for twenty years. After a while, whether it was because he was homesick, tired, or a mixture of both, Ibn Battuta decided to head back home to Morocco. It took him five more years to get there, and he had to travel through places where people were dying of the Black Death. When he finally got home, in 1350, his mother and father were both dead. But it wasn't long before he got the itch to travel again. He left very soon for Spain, and then took another trip south across the Sahara Desert to see the Kingdom of Mali in West Africa. After that, Ibn Battuta finally went home for good. By this time he was fifty years old, and he spent the rest of his life in Morocco as a respected judge, writing a book, the Rihla, that told all about his travels. All told, over a period of 29 years he visited the equivalent of 44 countries and traveled about 75,000 miles. To put that in perspective, that's like traveling from New York to Los Angeles a total of 27 times, during an era where traveling 100 miles could take weeks.

5/10/21

What do jumpy goats, Starbucks and the Pope have in common with Africa? Coffee! It all starts in 850 CE when a young goat herder named Khalid was tending his flock in the African country of Ethiopia. He soon noticed that his goats, upon eating berries from a certain tree, became so jumpy that they found it difficult to sleep at night. Khalid brewed some of the berries to try for himself. Soon word of this new wonder beverage spread across the Red Sea to Yemen, a territory at the southern tip of the Arabian Peninsula. It was there that Arabs became the first to not only cultivate coffee but also to begin its trade. The drink became so popular that it was not only served in homes but also in the many public coffee houses which began to appear in cities across the Near

East. The popularity of the coffee houses was unequaled and people frequented them for all kinds of social activity. Not only did they drink coffee and engage in conversation, but they also listened to music, watched performers, played chess and kept current on the news of the day (sound familiar?). In fact, they quickly became such an important center for the exchange of information that the coffee houses were often referred to as "Schools of the Wise." By the 17th century, coffee had made its way to Europe and was becoming popular across the continent. But not everyone was a fan. Opponents were overly cautious of the beverage, calling it "the bitter invention of Satan." With the arrival of coffee in Venice in 1615, the local clergy

condemned it. The controversy was so great that Pope Clement VIII was asked to intervene. Before making a decision however, he wanted to taste the beverage for himself. Initially, he liked it a little, but after he added some steamed milk, he liked it a "latte". Afterwards, he gave coffee the thumb's up on the "grounds" that it was delicious.

5/7/21

What do the soft drinks Coke and Pepsi have in common with medieval West Africa? First you have to ask yourself what do the aforementioned soft drinks taste like. Orange soda tastes like oranges, grape soda tastes like Concord grapes, and citrus-y sodas like Sprite and 7UP taste, well citrus-y. But what are Coke

and Pepsi supposed to taste like? Believe it or not, they are supposed to mimic the taste of the West African kola nut. The two biggest staples of medieval West African trade were gold and salt, but the trade of kola nuts ranked right behind them. It was a popular product because even though it could be bitter when chewed, it had a high caffeine content and was used as a stimulant. In fact, their use as a "pick-me-up" was what eventually caught the attention of a doctor from Georgia named John Pemberton. In May of 1886, he took extracts from the kola nut and the coca plant (yes, that coca plant), mixed them with sugar, carbonated water and

caramel color to create the first Coca-Cola recipe. Seven years later, Pepsi was born. Pepsi-Cola got its name from kola nut flavoring and its claim that it was a cure for indigestion and heartburn (dyspepsia), which is ironic since drinking Pepsi can actually cause indigestion and heartburn. Though neither use kola nuts anymore, the inspiration for their signature flavor was inspired by a nut that spread throughout the world thanks to West African trade.

5/6/21

Since humans first left Africa 60,000 years ago, there has been a constant recurring set of movement, settlement, and more movement. Throughout history, people have chosen to uproot themselves and move to explore their world. Sometimes they migrate in search of new opportunities. Other times, migration is a desperate attempt to find a place to survive or to live in peace. In general, there are three categories of migration...

ENVIRONMENTAL - When people migrate because of sudden or gradual alterations in the natural environment

POLITICAL - When people migrate because of a war, civil war or state policies which discriminate against particular categories of its citizens

ECONOMIC - When people migrate to seek better opportunities for employment and to increase their economic stability.

When looking at migration, historians and geographers call the factors that cause people to move, push-pull factors. An example of an environmental pull factor might be abundant and fertile land that attracts people. On the other hand, the depletion of natural resources forces people away from a location—a push factor. Employment opportunities - a pull factor. Lack of employment is a push factor. Political conditions such as freedom - a pull factor. Religious or racial persecution is a push factor. In the early history of human life, environmental factors were most likely the strongest factor in people's migrations. As the world became more industrialized, economic and political causes played a greater role. More people moved to cities where work in factories was available. Elsewhere, religious or ethnic persecution supported by governments often drove groups of people to flee in order to survive. Over the next day and a half

we'll focus on political and economic migration, but for now let's look at the role climate change could play in driving environmental migration in the near future. According to a report from the World Bank, as the sea creeps steadily inland in countries such as Bangladesh, and as dwindling rains put already marginal farmland out of play in Ethiopia and other places, a wave of migration triggered by a changing climate is taking shape on the horizon. But most “climate migrants” will not be heading abroad to start new lives; instead they will settle elsewhere in their home countries. For example, people may increasingly leave Ethiopia’s northern highlands, where agriculture depends on seasonal rains that are now unreliable. Others are likely to flee coastal areas in Bangladesh, where saltwater is contaminating the drinking supplies of 20 million people and according to one report is causing an increase in diarrheal

diseases. Addis Ababa, Ethiopia’s capital of three million, could see increasingly unreliable rains and thus an unstable water supply. These changes could be devastating. The report declares that if nothing is done to curb global warming and factor migration into development planning, by mid-century this population shift could involve more than 140 million people forced to move within their homelands or perhaps even beyond.

5/5/21

If you could choose between a pile of salt and a pile of gold, you would probably choose the gold. After all, you know that you can always buy a container of salt for about $2 at the local supermarket. In fact, salt seems to be ALL AROUND US!!! It's under the ground and on the earth’s surface in the dried up residues of ancient seas. But our seas and oceans are our "current" biggest source of salt. If you extracted all the salt that exists there, it would cover the world’s total land mass to a depth of 115 feet. But what if you could not easily get salt? That was the case in many parts of the ancient world. Take the West African empire of Ghana. Because it was located in the forests of West Africa, they had few natural resources for salt and always needed to trade for it. Gold, however, was much easier to come by. In fact, they could often find tiny grains of

gold sparkling in the river beds after a rainfall. On the other hand, the people who lived in the desert of North Africa could easily mine salt, but not gold. They craved the precious metal for obvious reasons. These mutual needs led to the establishment of long-distance trade routes that connected very different cultures. But WHY was salt in such high demand? Sodium is an essential electrolyte that helps maintain the balance of water in and around your cells. It's important for proper muscle and nerve function and it also helps to maintain stable blood pressure levels. If a true sodium deficiency occurs, people (in fact ALL mammals) can experience symptoms such as brain swelling, congestive heart failure, or they can slip into a coma. In other words, a lack of sodium in your diet can lead to an "a-salt" on your system! Salt

is also essential because it helps preserve food by reducing the moisture in the meat. And that meat can be stored without refrigeration for long periods of time, because bacteria can't grow in a place with high levels of sodium. Because of these reasons, the now common seasoning was every bit as valuable as gold in the ancient world.

5/4/21

Who is the wealthiest person in the history of the world? Bill Gates? Jeff Bezos? Elon Musk? The winner of the last PowerBall drawing? No, according to a 2015 study by Money magazine, it was a 14th century African king

named Mansa Musa. The publication consulted with historians and economists and came to the conclusion that, adjusting for inflation, the ruler of the African nation of Mali was richer that anyone -- EVER! To give you a better idea how CRAZY rich that is, the richest person alive today is Jeff Bezos, who is ONLY worth $197 billion, and he only ranks EIGHTH on the all-time list. Still, he is the richest person alive and is a full $45 billion ahead of anyone else currently alive. To give you more context on exactly how filthy stinking rich Mansa Musa was, the person who ranks second on the all-time list is Augustus Caesar, who reportedly at his peak was worth a mind-numbing $4.6 trillion in today's dollars. According to Stanford history professor Ian Morris, Augustus at one point held personal wealth equivalent to one-fifth of his empire’s economy. “For a while,” Morris adds, Augustus “personally owned all of Egypt.” That’s hard to top. Unless of course you're Mansa Musa. Musa’s west African kingdom of

Mali was likely the largest producer of gold in the world—at a time in which gold was in especially high demand. Just how rich was he? There’s really no way to put an accurate number on his wealth (that alone should tell you something.) Records are scarce, and contemporary sources describe Musa’s riches in terms that are impossible to comprehend. But to give you some idea of his vast wealth, in 1324 CE the Muslim ruler set out on his pilgrimage to Mecca. With him, he brought 60,000 men (including 12,000 slaves all dressed in the finest silks), and had a baggage train of 80 camels each carrying 300 pounds of gold. On his trip, he spent so much gold in Cairo, Egypt that it caused the value of gold to collapse. It would take 10 years for their economy to fully recover. The extravagant journey put Mansa Musa on the map — quite literally. He was included on the 1375 Catalan Atlas (pictured below), one of the most important world maps of Medieval Europe. [For a complete list of the top-10 richest people of all time AND their estimated wealth, click on this link...10 Richest People of All Time]

5/3/21

To truly understand about medieval Africa, we must first learn about how the citizens interacted with the Sahara Desert. And to understand that, we must understand the animal that made that interaction possible -- the camel. Whether it was through trade caravans or tribal transportation, life in and around the desert would be virtually impossible without them. We'll learn more about camels later, but for now, a few fast facts...-- Camels can reach as high as 7 ft. tall at the hump and can weigh as much as 1500 pounds.

-- They are specially adapted to the life in desert PART ONE. Their eyes have three eyelids and two rows of eyelashes that prevent sand from entering their eyes.

-- They are specially adapted to the life in desert PART TWO. Camel's ears are furry. Hairs keep the sand and dust away from their ears. Besides ears and eyes, their nostrils prevent the sand from entering by closing in between two breaths.

-- Camels can move easily across the sand because of their specially designed feet. A camel's foot consists of two toes that spread when animal touches the ground and prevents sinking in the sand.

-- Camels are mostly famous for their humps. Many people believe that humps store water, but they actually store fat, which the animal uses as a source of energy when other food sources are not available.

-- Camels need water. And because they live in an environment in which the availability of water is uncertain, they need to drink as much water as possible whenever the opportunity presents itself. In fact, at their thirstiest they can drink up to 40 gallons of water at one time.

-- Camels need to retain as much water as possible in their body, so when they produce urine it has the consistency of syrup and their feces is so dry it can actually be burned as a fuel.

-- Camels can run as fast as 40 miles per hour (In fact, camel racing is a popular sport in places like Pakistan, Saudi Arabia, Egypt, United Arab Emirates, Mongolia and even Australia.) Camel Racing: One of the Richest Sports in the World

4/30/21

Today we'll begin to learn about Africa, but in order to understand life in medieval Africa, you must first understand one of its most recognizable geographic features -- the Sahara Desert. The enormous area, which is located in northern Africa, is perhaps the most dominant feature of the continent. It is mistakenly thought to be the largest desert in the world, perhaps because the word Sahara means “the greatest desert” in Arabic. But believe it or not, the largest desert is Antarctica. Still, the Sahara is EXTREMELY expansive.

It covers 3.6 million square miles, and is almost the same size as the United States or China. It spans 11 countries and comprises 8% of the world's land area. Here are a few other facts about the world's most famous desert.-- As recently as 6,000 BCE grains were grown across much of what is now the Sahara. In fact, prehistoric cave drawings in the area depict it as a lush and thriving land.

-- It's BOTH hot and cold. During the summer, temperatures can get as high as 120 degrees, with the all-time high being

4/29/21

There are two major sects of Islam, Sunni and Shia, and they have a history filled with conflict and violence that still exists today. When Muhammad died in the early 7th century he left behind a community of one hundred thousand followers. Since he did not have a son to replace him, there was a disagreement about who should succeed Muhammad as leader of the community. The larger group of Muslims chose Abu Bakr, a close companion of Muhammad, as the caliph (leader) and he was accepted as such by much of the community. However another smaller group, which also included some of Muhammad's companions, believed that his son-in-law and cousin, Ali, should be caliph. Muslims who believe that Abu Bakr should have been the Prophet's successor have come to be known as Sunni (example of Muhammad) Muslims. Those who believe Ali should have been the Prophet's successor are now known as Shia (followers of Ali) Muslims. The violence between the groups began in 656 CE, when Shiites killed a Sunni leader. As retaliation, the Sunnis killed Ali’s son, Hussein. Since then, Sunnis have since become the dominant force in the Islamic

world. There are about 1.8 billion Muslims worldwide and Sunnis make up 87% to 90% of the worldwide Muslim population. Shiite Muslims make up only approximately 10%. The Sunni and Shiite are in agreement on most aspects of Islam. Both read the Quran, both believe Muhammad was the prophet of Allah, and both practice the Five Pillars. Because of these basic similarities, many Muslims worldwide don't even distinguish themselves by claiming membership in any particular group, but prefer to call themselves simply Muslims. However, that's not always the case. A Pew Research Center survey from 2012 shows that 40% of Sunni Muslims from the Middle East and North Africa do not accept Shias as proper Muslims. So what are the differences? One major difference is a practice called "Matam".

It is a 1,300 year-old tradition that marks the massacre of Muhammad's grandson Hussein. Sunni's do not participate in the ritual, only Shiites do. Traditionally, the men walk down the street topless, carrying a number of sharp daggers known as zanjeer which hang from chains. They the swing the blades around, whipping themselves on their backs in remembrance of Hussein's death. In the shedding of blood, they symbolically share the suffering of Hussein. The controversial practice has been condemned by many Shiite leaders, but is still practiced by many devout members of the sect. Leaders have suggested that if Shiites want to shed blood to share in Hussein's suffering that they donate blood instead. Still, the practice continues, and even young boys participate in the unusual activity. There are other important differences. Shiites consider their founder, Ali, and the leaders who came after him as imams (leaders). They believe

4/26/21

President Donald Trump made international headline news in December of 2017 when he decided to recognize Jerusalem as the official capital of Israel. That move became official May 14, 2018, when the US officially moved its embassy to the city. But why was that such a big deal? Because after

occupying the eastern part of the city in the Six-Day War of 1967, Israel annexed the territory, and its political leaders proclaimed the city Israel's "eternal, undivided capital." However, the international community continues to regard East Jerusalem as occupied territory, and rejects Israel’s decision to settle its citizens there. Nor is Israel's claim that Jerusalem is its capital city widely recognized. Most foreign nations continue to maintain their embassies in Tel Aviv. That's because the city is perhaps the most prized piece of real estate in the Middle East, in large part because it holds deep religious significance for Jews, Muslims and Christians. Jerusalem includes the holiest ground in Judaism, the third-holiest shrine in Islam and

many major Christian sites linked to the life of Jesus exist within the city limits. The three religions have coexisted in Jerusalem with mixed results, under long-standing agreements that basically split the city up into sections that are run by different religious authorities. Islamic leaders administer the Temple Mount complex. Jordan, which is the former ruler of the Old City, retains custodial rights over the area and oversees the complex, and any Israeli attempts to add oversight of that sector have sometimes sparked violence. Separately, the Israeli government controls the Western Wall (also known as the Wailing Wall), while a group of Christians administers the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.

Here are some other facts on the significance of the city to the three religions:

JUDAISM

The Temple Mount, on a hilltop compound that is also revered by Muslims, is where the biblical Jewish Temples stood thousands of years ago and is considered the holiest site in Judaism. When Jews pray, they face Jerusalem. Those in Jerusalem face the Temple Mount. At the end of the Passover Seder, Jews say "Next year in Jerusalem," among

other traditions to affirm the religious connection rooted in the Hebrew Bible. The Western Wall, or Wailing Wall as it has come to be known, is in the heart of the Old City in Jerusalem and is the holiest place where Jews can pray and draws Jews from around the world.ISLAMThe Temple Mount is home to the Dome of the Rock, the third-holiest site in Islam after Mecca and Medina, and is at

the center of one of the most important moments in Islam: the Prophet Muhammad's Night Journey and Ascension. According to Islamic teaching, Muhammad was carried by the angel Gabriel on a winged horse from Mecca to Jerusalem's Noble Sanctuary, where he prayed with other prophets and ascended to Heaven before returning. Muslims originally prayed facing in the direction of Jerusalem, putting Islam among the Abrahamic traditions of Judaism and Christianity, before reorienting the direction of prayer toward Mecca.

CHRISTIANITY

The most pivotal developments in the Christian faith occurred in and around Jerusalem. Christian tradition holds that the Church of the Holy Sepulchre is where Jesus was

crucified, buried and rose from the dead. The city includes the Garden of Gesthemane, where Jesus prayed and his disciples slept the night before his Crucifixion, among other sites of significance for believers. Christian pilgrims have been visiting the site for centuries. "Jerusalem is important to Christians because Jerusalem was important to Jesus," said the Rev. James Martin, author of Jesus: A Pilgrimage. ''So much of Jesus' ministry took place in Jerusalem."

4/22/21

Can belief systems affect the way you travel from Point A to Point B? Definitely! Take the case of Saudi Airlines, the national airline of Saudi Arabia, which is one of the strictest Islamic countries in the world. The carrier already has a number of Islamic guidelines in place – the airline does not offer alcohol (or

other public places, women are required to enter and exit through special doors. Women didn't even have the right to get behind the wheel in Saudi Arabia until 2018, making it the last country in the world to grant women the right to drive. With that in mind, it's no surprise that the World Economic Forum's 2013 Global Gender Gap Report ranked Saudi Arabia 127th out of 136 countries for gender equality.

4/21/21

Yesterday, you read about how the Abbasids presided over the Golden Age of Islam. From approximately 800-1100 CE the Islamic world was a cultural and intellectual center. Science and mathematics flourished. There was even a

building called the "House of Wisdom" in Baghdad. The building was frequented by the great thinkers of the time, and they were interested in re-engaging with the brilliant work of the ancient Greeks, which had been lost and almost forgotten about, for centuries. Apart from translating the classic Greek texts, they published their own research on mathematics and astronomy, as well as other fields. What were some of their major achievements? Let's break it down by category.Mathematics

Perhaps the most important discovery was that of algebra (those of you who are allergic to math can blame the Islamic Golden Age). The subject was created by Abu Ja'far Muhammad ibn Musa al-Khwarizmi (that’s a mouthful). He was a scholar at the House of Wisdom and was one of the first to write about algebra, using words, not letters. Around 825 CE he wrote the book Hisab Al-jabr w’al-muqabala, from which we get the word algebra. His aim was to solve linear or quadratic equations by removing negatives using a

process of balancing both sides of an equation. This is the same as what we do in algebra today. Al-Khwarizmi also helped establish widespread use of Hindu-Arabic numbers: 1, 2, 3, ...which replaced Roman numerals.EconomicsTo encourage the flow of trade, Muslim money changers set up banks in cities throughout the empire. Banks offered

letters of credit, called sakks, to merchants. A merchant with a sakk from a bank in Baghdad could exchange it for cash at a bank in any other city in the empire. In Europe, sakk was pronounced "check." Thus, using checks dates back to the Muslim Empire, more specifically to the 9th century of the Abbasid Empire.

Medicine

Abu al-Qassim al-Zahrawi, or Albucassis as he's come to be known in the West, was a physician and surgeon that was born in Spain in 936 CE (which was part of the Muslim world but outside of DIRECT Abbasid control). Some call al-Zahrawi the "father of modern surgery". He was the first to discover the hereditary nature of hemophilia and the first to describe ectopic pregnancy. Cosmetics/Personal HygieneAl-Zahrawi wrote the Al-Tasrif, a 30-part medical encyclopedia. And one of those chapters was dedicated to cosmetics. He considered cosmetics a branch of medication,

which he called the "Medication of Beauty". For example, not only did he deal with scented aromatics and incense, but he also took perfumes and put them into molds, making the precursor to deodorant sticks. He applied the same process to make the first lipstick.

4/20/21

Over the past few days you’ve learned about the Five Pillars of Islam, and focused specifically on the Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca), Sawm (fasting during Ramadan), the Shahada (declaration of faith), and the Salat (prayer five times a day) Today, we'll focus on the fifth and final pillar, Zakat (charity for the disadvantaged). While the concept may be self-explanatory, the rules around it should be explained. The literal meaning of Zakat is purification. To give Zakat

implies purifying not only your wealth, but also your soul by giving a portion of your wealth to those in need. The word Zakat appears in the Holy Quran a total of 32 times. In fact, there is even a set of rules and a formula that have been designed to instruct Muslims how much money to donate to the needy. Of course, not every Muslim is required to give alms to the poor. To be responsible for Zakat, one’s wealth must amount to more than a minimum figure, termed the “nisab”. Since this practice has been around since before there was paper currency, the nisab is determined based on the amount of gold and/or silver you own. In fact, Islamic charities actually have a

"Zakat Calculator" on many of their websites to assist donors. Zakat amounts to a minimum of 2.5% of all net savings. This includes cash in hand, bank savings, bonds, and other objects of monetary value, including jewelry and gold. Therefore, their worth must be factored into total yearly savings. Some items are exempt, like items for personal use like your house, cars and clothing. The Zakat amount can be broken down into different quantities and be given to multiple charities. Then there is Zakat al Fitr which every free Muslim must pay. However, this donation isn't paid in money, but food instead. It's donated after the month-long fasting of Ramadan. To break the fast, Muslims have a celebration feast called Eid al Fitr. Before the Eid prayer after the fast of Ramadan, every adult

Muslim who possesses food in excess of their needs and those of their family must pay Zakat al Fitr. If the person is a breadwinner, they should also pay Zakat al Fitr for their dependents such as their wife/husband, children, dependent relatives or servants. Zakat al Fitr can be paid a few days before the end of Ramadan. It is preferable to pay it just before Eid prayer (first thing in the morning) so that the poor can enjoy the Eid. The minimum amount due is the equivalent of about 4.5 pounds of flour, wheat, barley or rice from each person in the household, including the head of the household and each dependent.

4/19/21

Over the past few days you’ve learned about the Five Pillars of Islam, and focused specifically on the hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca), shahada (declaration of faith) and salat (ritual prayer five times a day). Today, we’ll look at sawm (fasting during Ramadan) more closely. First, you need to know what

Ramadan is. Ramadan is a celebration of when the first verses of the Quran were said to be revealed to the prophet Muhammad in 610 CE. So, during the ninth month on the Muslim calendar, followers celebrated the occasion by abstaining from food, drink, and other pleasures from sunup to sundown. This time spent fasting is meant to be used for prayer, charity, spirituality, and for purifying the mind and body. Muslims are also expected to abstain from impurities such as gossip and cursing. Of course, not everyone has to participate. Pregnant women, people who are mentally or physically ill, and sometimes women who are

breastfeeding are allowed to skip the fast. Children are not obligated to fast until they hit puberty, although many choose to observe the fast at least part of the month in preparation for later years. The exact start of Ramadan is often up in the air until just before the holiday begins because it is determined by a sighting of the new moon. Many places still depend on someone seeing the new moon with the naked eye in order to declare the holiday. As a result, Ramadan’s start can vary from place to place because of weather conditions and other factors that affect how easily the moon is seen. However, countries are increasingly relying on astronomical calculations and observatories, leading to a more uniform start time. They look for the new moon because Islam functions on a lunar calendar that doesn’t quite line up with the solar Gregorian calendar that the secular world uses. So while Muslim holidays are always the same day on the

Muslim calendar, they happen on different days on the Gregorian calendar – typically moving 11 or 12 days earlier each year. Here are some more interesting facts about Ramadan…-- Ironically, many people gain weight during Ramadan. They tend to be less active during the daytime, eat richer food than normal during their evening meals, and get the majority of their daily calories at night, shortly before they go to sleep.

-- When Ramadan falls during the summer months, the sun can be up for as long as 17-18 hours making for extra long fast times.

-- In Egypt, the clocks are pushed back to shorten the days and increase the night, when fasting is not required.

-- During Ramadan, Muslim-majority countries often shorten work days to allow for additional prayer time each day.

4/15/21

Over the past few days you’ve learned about the Five Pillars of Islam, and focused specifically on the hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca). Today we’ll focus on two of the pillars, shahada (declaration of faith) and salat (ritual prayer five times a day). First, a definition is long overdue. The word 'Islam' in religious terms means 'surrender one's will to the true will of God to achieve peace'. A Muslim refers to the individual who surrenders themselves to God's true will. Now, with that out of the way, what is shahada? It’s the first of the Five Pillars of Islam and is the Muslim profession of faith, expressing the two simple, fundamental beliefs that make one a Muslim:

La ilaha illa Allah wa-Muhammad rasul Allah.

(There is no god but Allah and Muhammad is the prophet of Allah).

Sincere recitation of this confession of faith before at least two Muslims is the first step for those who wish to join the Muslim community. It represents acceptance not only of Allah and his prophet, but of the entirety of Islam. As one of the Pillars, the shahada must be recited correctly aloud with full understanding at least once in every Muslim's lifetime. The shahada is also recited in the muezzin's call to prayer, and it is included in the salat. It is also recited in the moments before death. So what is the salat? It’s the daily ritual prayer performed by Muslims, and it occurs five times a day; dawn, after midday, afternoon, sunset, and nighttime. Prayer is always performed in the direction of the Kaaba shrine in Mecca. A prayer mat is commonly used. Salat may be performed individually, but it carries special merit when done with other Muslims. To be done properly, it must

4/14/21

Yesterday we began learning about Islam and its core practices, the Five Pillars. One of those practices is the hajj, or the annual Islamic pilgrimage to Mecca, the most holy city in Islam. It is a mandatory religious duty for Muslims that must be carried out at least once in their lifetime by all adult Muslims who are physically and financially capable of undertaking the journey. And it's a journey that can ONLY be made by a Muslim person. The government of Saudi Arabia issues a set number of hajj visas annually. Although those are free, the trip itself carries considerable costs, especially for transportation and lodging, and pilgrims must use an approved travel agent. Hajj packages from the United States may exceed $5,000. Once in Mecca, Islamic pilgrims will visit the Kaaba, the most holy site in all of Islam. But what is so special about the Kaaba? The Kaaba was a sanctuary in pre-Islamic times. Muslims believe that Abraham (the father of Judaism, Christianity and Islam) and his son, Ismail, constructed the Kaaba as a place to worship the one true God of his faith. Here are some other facts about the distinctive building.

[NUMBER ONE]

The black, gold, and white that you see on the Kaaba is a cloth covering.

Many people are so used to the Kaaba being covered in the iconic black cloth with gold banding, which is called a kiswa, that they may find it difficult to believe that it was ever any other color. But, before the Abbasid Empire came to power in 750 CE the Kaaba was covered in multiple colors including green, red and even white. Oh, by the way, the price tag of having one of those kiswas made is $5.3 million. Every year, the old kiswa is removed, cut into small pieces, and given to certain individuals, visiting foreign Muslim dignitaries and organizations.[NUMBER TWO]

Speaking of dignitaries and VIPs, until recently, the Kaaba was opened twice a week for anyone to enter and pray. However, due to the rapid expansion in the number of pilgrims and other factors, the Kaaba is now opened only twice a year for dignitaries and exclusive guests only. That means that even famous Muslims like Shaquille

O’Neal, Ice Cube, DJ Khaled, and Zayn Malik probably don’t have enough pull to get a backstage pass. OK, maybe Zayn does, especially if he promises to reunite with One Direction! (Fingers crossed)[NUMBER THREE]

The eastern cornerstone of the

4/8/21

Hopefully by now we should all know that the Ottoman Turks used cannons to destroy what had previously been thought of as “the indestructible walls of Constantinople.” But the Turks didn’t rely solely on the superior technology of cannons to achieve victory, they also used superior strategy. One of the defenses of Constantinople was a giant barrier chain they used to block the Golden Horn, the harbor that bordered the city. The five miles of sea walls in that area were comparatively weak and the calm waters there could provide a safe anchorage to an enemy fleet. Emperor Leo III provided the tactical solution in the form of the famous

barrier chain. Made of giant wooden links that were joined by immense nails and heavy iron shackles, the chain could be deployed in an emergency by means of a ship hauling it across the Golden Horn. Securely anchored on both ends, with its length guarded by Byzantine warships at anchor in the harbor, the great chain was a formidable obstacle and a vital element of the city’s defenses. In order to defeat the Byzantines, the Turks couldn’t just use cannons on the mighty walls of Constantinople, they would have to find a way to get through the chain, too. During the initial attack, the Turks tried to muscle their way through the chain and failed miserably. Mehmet II, decided he needed a new plan

for his navy. If the Ottoman fleet couldn’t go through the chain, they’d go around it. Mehmet II ordered the construction of a road of greased logs across the north side of the Golden Horn. He then ordered his men to move their ships from the water onto the shore and eventually roll them across the road. Over one night, 72 ships were carried over land and put into the Golden Horn. On the morning of April 22nd, the Eastern Roman Empire woke up with a surprise when they saw Ottoman ships in their harbor. In total, the Turks entire siege of Constantinople lasted from April 6, 1453 until May 29, 1453 when the city was eventually conquered. A new era started in the world as Islam came to dominate the area, a fact that is still true today.

3/25/21

Today, the word “icon” refers to many different things. For example, we use this word to refer to the small graphic symbols in our software, powerful cultural figures, or horrible raps by Jaden Smith. Nevertheless, these different meanings retain a connection to the word's original meaning. Icon is Greek for 'image' or 'painting' and during the medieval era, this meant a religious image on a wooden panel used for prayer and devotion. “Iconoclasm” refers to the destruction of these images, more specifically, the word is used for the controversy that shook the Byzantine Empire for more than 100 years. Open hostility toward religious representations began in 726 when Byzantine Emperor Leo III publicly took a position against icons; this resulted in their removal from churches and their destruction. No one is sure why Leo III made his decision. Some historians believe that by prohibiting icons, he sought

to better integrate Muslim and Jewish populations. BothMuslims and Jews perceived Christian images as idols and in direct opposition to the Old Testament prohibition of visual representations. The second commandment states, "You shall not make for yourself a carved image – any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or in the earth beneath, or that is in the waters under the earth. You shall not adore them, nor serve them (Exodus 20:3-5)." Another theory suggests that the prohibition was an attempt to control the growing wealth and power of the monasteries that produced the icons and were a primary target of the violence of the controversy. Other scholars suggest that Leo III, and others who were offended, sincerely believed worshiping images was a sin. Icon't tell you the real reason for his distaste of icons, but I can tell you that the prohibition essentially caused a civil war which shook the political, social and religious fabric of the empire. The conflict pitted the emperor and certain high church officials (i.e., patriarchs, bishops) who supported iconoclasm, against other bishops, lower clergy, and monks,

who defended the use of icons. In the West, the pope became involved and supported the use of icons. Things got so bad that one pope even excommunicated a Byzantine emperor over the the issue (to excommunicate means to declare someone an outcast from the church.) The first phase of iconoclasm ended in 787, when a council of bishops met in Nicaea and affirmed the view that Christians should respect holy icons. Twenty-seven years later, another Emperor Leo (V) initiated a second period of iconoclasm, but in 843, Empress Theodora (no, not that one) again proclaimed the restoration of icons. This event is still celebrated in the Eastern Orthodox Church as the “Feast of Orthodoxy”, which just took place on March 21, 2021.

3/24/21

Way back in the 7th century CE, the Byzantines—not the Greeks—created something called Greek Fire to protect Constantinople during an Arab siege. The Byzantines had a few different names for Greek fire, like "sea fire", "liquid

fire", and "straight fire" 😂 . It wasn’t the first ever incendiary (flammable) weapon, but it was an incredibly successful one. We’re still talking about it today in part because nobody knows what ingredients went into the mixture. In fact, armies that captured the liquid along with the machine that delivered it were unable to replicate either of them. The Greek fire mystery has captivated historians and scientists for centuries and may have been an inspiration for the invention of modern-day flamethrowers. Though often used as an umbrella term to describe a variety of lesser formulas, true Greek fire was a specific liquid incendiary

concoction which was heated and pressurized, then delivered through a hose. It was so effective because once ignited, it could burn on water and stick onto surfaces, and was only extinguishable with sand, vinegar, or–bizarrely en0ugh–old urine. Copies were created by other peoples over the centuries, but none had all these qualities. The true Byzantine formula died with the empire. Hand grenades were also used in ancient times. They were

filled with Greek fire and sealed so that all a soldier needed to do was throw the grenade toward the enemy to eliminate him. The hand grenades we have now are a direct descendant of these contraptions; we’ve just updated the concept by using explosives instead of flammable liquids. As with grenades, the modern world has also found a way to make its own copy of Greek fire: napalm -- a thick, flammable liquid that once ignited, can burn at more than 5,000 degrees Fahrenheit, and its also not extinguishable with water. It was used extensively during the Vietnam Conflict, although it was a very controversial weapon. The last time America used it in battle was was during the 2003 invasion of Iraq.

3/23/21

Today you'll learn how Roman emperor Constantine moved the capital of the Roman Empire to its eastern half, and renamed it Constantinople. What you may not know is that the city still exists today, although it is now named Istanbul and is the most highly populated city in Turkey. The city, as well as the eastern Roman Empire, fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453 CE. The song you just listened to was Istanbul (Not Constantinople), performed by a band called They Might Be Giants. They released their version of

3/22/21

It may come as no surprise to you that Byzantine emperors would sometimes mutilate their enemies if they were victorious in battle. However, it might surprise you to know that on occasion they would also do the same to their political rivals at home. Byzantine politicians often avoided

killing their competition in favor of disfiguring them. For instance, by blinding a rival, one would not only restrict their mobility but make it almost impossible for them to lead an army into battle, then an important part of taking control of the empire. Castration was also used to eliminate potential opponents. It removed any chance of heirs being born to threaten either the emperor or the emperor's children's place on the throne. Other mutilations were the severing of the nose or the

amputation of limbs. Why would they do something like this? Who "nose"? Actually, maimings like this served a specific purpose. The emperor was supposed to be a reflection of heavenly authority. Since God was perfect, the emperor also had to be unblemished; any mutilation, especially facial wounds, would disqualify an individual from taking the throne. Of course, it didn’t always work as planned. Take the curious case of Emperor Justinian II. After overtaxing the citizens of the Byzantine empire and making enemies of the wrong people, Justinian II was overthrown. Instead of being killed he had his nose hacked off and was sent into exile. His new appearance earned him the nickname rhinometos, or "slit-nose.” In order to cover up the now-gaping hole in the middle of his face, Justinian II underwent what was likely the most expensive nose-job in history and had a golden nose made as a replacement. It must have made him look appealing enough, because despite his disfigurement, he was somehow able to return to power 10 years later. Unfortunately, his second time on the throne ended much worse than his first. Six years into his second reign he was overthrown again, but this time he was beheaded to make sure he was finished for good.

3/19/21

Today will be the last day that we cover the western Roman Empire, so here is a data dump of all the remaining Facts of the Day I have. Monday we start on the Eastern Roman Empire, better known as the Byzantine Empire. So, here goes a list of random facts that have nothing to do with anything in particular but that you might find interesting...

-- Flamingo tongues were a delicacy in ancient Rome

-- It was considered a sign of leadership to be born with a crooked nose

-- Ancient Rome was eight times more densely populated than present day New York City

-- In 150 CE ancient Rome had less income inequality than the U.S. today

-- Because it was such a valuable commodity, Romans soldiers would sometimes be paid in salt. This payment was called a "salarium", and it's where we get the word salary.

-- Two Roman dams, currently located in Spain, are still in use after 1900 years

-- The Statue of Liberty was inspired by the Roman goddess Libertas

-- The Pyramids of Giza were more ancient to the ancient Romans than ancient Rome is to us

-- Julius Caesar would have been pronounced "yoo-lee-us kye-sahr" in ancient Rome

3/18/21

What is a barbarian? The most common definition is someone that is uncivilized, like Conan the Barbarian, or someone that does evil and cruel things. You may be surprised to find out that’s not the word’s initial meaning. The term originated in ancient Greece, and it simply described people who did not speak Greek. The meaning of the word barbarian would change dramatically late in the Roman Empire when Romans (who ironically would have called barbarians by the Greeks) used the word to refer to ALL foreigners, especially the wide variety of people who were encroaching on their borders. These barbarians were never united. Some pillaged the Roman Empire while others became its allies. There were numerous groups and their allegiances changed over time. Also, the word barbarian did not have a negative meaning for everyone in the Roman Empire. Around 440 CE, a Christian priest wrote that “almost all barbarians, at least those who are of one race and kin, love each other, while the Romans persecute each other.” He noted that many poor Romans turned to the barbarians for help. “They doubtless seek Roman humanity among the barbarians, because they cannot bear barbarian inhumanity among the Romans.” In

other words many of the citizens of Rome had grown tired of how their government was treating them, and they found the surrounding Barbarians to be the lesser of two evils. This was one of the many reasons that led to the eventual downfall of the western Roman Empire in 476 CE.

3/17/21

What connection does St. Patrick have to the Roman Empire and werewolves? The first one is easy. The Roman Empire controlled Britain in 386 CE, and Maewyn Succat (St. Patrick's birth name) was born in Roman Britain that year, making him Roman, not Irish. Succat was kidnapped at age 16 and taken to

Ireland, where he was forced to work as a shepherd for Irish invaders (I heard they treated him very baaaaa-dly). During his time in captivity he became a devout Christian, and was encouraged by a voice he believed to be God’s to escape from his captors. After his escape he began spreading Christianity to the people of Ireland, which leads us to the werewolves. As legend tells, during his travels he came upon the Irish kingdom of Ossory. It wasn't unusual for him to receive pushback from the local pagan population, but the people of Ossory were particularly troublesome. They went out of their way to not only insult Patricius (that's what he was called), but also God. In an effort to obtain maximum rudeness, they

began howling at him like wolves. Patricius responded by praying for God to punish the clan, resulting in them suffering "a fitting and severe though very marvelous punishment, for it is told that all the members of that clan were changed into wolves for a period and roamed through the woods feeding upon the same food as wolves; but they were worse than wolves, for in all their wiles they had the wit of men, though they were as eager to devour men as to destroy other creatures." The werewolves were not permanently transformed, as they either took the form of a wolf every seventh winter or were transformed into a wolf for a seven-year period, following which they never transformed again. Of course, that's not even what Patricius is most famous for. Apparently, he also drove all the snakes out of Ireland in the 5th century, although that was an easy job considering Ireland is only one of a handful of places where snakes have never existed (others include New Zealand, Iceland, Greenland, and Antarctica.) In the centuries following Patrick’s death (believed to have been on March 17, 461), the mythology surrounding his life became

ever more ingrained in Irish culture. Since around the ninth or 10th century, people in Ireland have been observing the Roman Catholic feast day of St. Patrick on March 17. Interestingly, however, the first parade held to honor St. Patrick’s Day took place not in Ireland but in America on March 17, 1762. Other smaller parades cropped up and by 1848, several New York Irish Aid societies decided to unite their parades to form one official New York City St. Patrick’s Day Parade. Today, that parade is the world’s oldest civilian parade and the largest in the United States, with over 150,000 participants. So what about all the parades in Ireland? Oddly enough, initially they weren’t particularly popular on the Emerald Isle, nor was the practice of drinking on the day. In modern-day Ireland, St. Patrick’s was primarily a

religious occasion and up until the 1970s, Irish laws mandated that pubs be closed on March 17. Beginning in 1995, however, the Irish government began a national campaign to use interest in St. Patrick’s Day to drive tourism and showcase Ireland and Irish culture to the rest of the world. Today, approximately 1 million people annually take part in Ireland’s St. Patrick’s Festival in Dublin, a multi-day celebration featuring parades, concerts, outdoor theater productions and fireworks shows.

3/16/21

What do University of Idaho students, graffiti artists and the Germanic tribe that "sacked" Rome in 455 CE have in common? In one way or another, they're all vandals. Allow me to explain. The term vandal is used to describe a person who is willfully destructive, and therefore vandalism stands for willful and malicious destruction of the property of others. And the word vandal as we know it, comes directly from the Vandals, a Germanic people who battled the Huns and the Goths and eventually sacked Rome. Because of this,

the University of Idaho chose Vandals as their nickname. Graffiti artists are considered vandals because they paint on the property of others without their permission (on a side note, graffiti comes from the Italian word graffiato, which means "scratched"). The Vandals became inextricably linked to violence and destruction in 1794, when a Christian bishop used the word vandalism to describe the destruction of artwork after the French Revolution. This was supposed to refer to the Vandals destruction of artwork during their sacking of Rome. Soon the term was quickly adopted in the whole of Europe. But were the Vandals really all that bad? Not necessarily. According

to one version of the story, the Vandals had grown so powerful that when they were set to attack the capital, the Romans didn’t even bother to send out an army but instead sent Pope Leo I out to negotiate with their leader. Whether this really happened is unknown but, in any event, the Vandals were allowed to enter Rome and plunder it unopposed, so long as they avoided killing the inhabitants and burning down the city. For fourteen days, the Vandals slowly and leisurely "relieved" the city of its wealth. Everything was taken down from the Imperial Palace, and the churches were emptied of their collected treasures. However, it wasn't all sunshine, lollipops, and rainbows. The

Vandals were said to have brought some of the Romans back home as slaves. So, while it's certainly true the Vandals weren't teddy bears, it may also be true that they were no more violent and destructive than any other tribe of warriors.

3/15/21

Raise your hand if you've heard of Attila the Hun? While some of you may know he is one of history's most famous warriors, you may not know that he played a significant role in the fall of the western Roman Empire. First, it all starts with the Huns. They made their first appearance in what is now Eastern Europe around the year 370 CE. They were a nomadic group of people from the plains of Central Asia. Their arrival, and subsequent defeats of barbarian tribes, pushed the resident tribes such as the Vandals and Visigoths westward into a collision course with the western Roman Empire, eventually leading to their downfall. In 376 CE, the Visigoths crossed the Danube River - a traditional boundary of the Roman Empire - to escape the Huns. They swarmed southward, headlong into the teeth of the Roman army. Unfortunately, by this time Rome had been weakened by a number of factors and were no match for the Germanic tribe. Two years later, the Visigoths defeated the Romans at the battle of Adrianople, further weakening the Empire.

However, that was all before little Attila was born in 406 CE. He later became the ruler of the Huns and led them to several victories over the mighty Roman Empire. Such was the fear Attila generated in his enemies that the Christians in Rome called him the "Scourge of God" (scourge means someone who causes intense pain and suffering.) He was so successful and became such a legend that some believed he held the "Sword of Attila" which was allegedly given to him by Mars, the god of war. In fact, he seemed so unstoppable that the Romans paid him fat stacks of cash so that he would no longer attack them. After a while, he renewed his attacks. The emperor sent Pope Leo I and two

other envoys to negotiate. After speaking with Leo and the envoys, Attila withdrew. The Romans paid the Huns to leave the peninsula. Of course, Pope Leo had a different version of events. He claimed that the ghosts of St. Paul (yes, that Paul) and St. Peter, revealed themselves to Attila and threatened him if he didn't leave Italy. The story became legendary when Attila died a year later, supposedly after getting a nosebleed and choking on his own blood as he slept. According to this early Christian interpretation, Leo is the hero raising the church’s stature and authority. The government and military failed miserably, but the church saved the empire and God destroyed the pagan invader. This episode dramatically increased the power and authority of the pope and the church. Of course, that didn't stop the western Roman Empire from collapsing less than 20 years after Attila's

death. And despite the credit that Pope Leo I got, the truth is not many people even know who he is, but TONS of people remember Attila the Hun. In fact, he was considered by some to be the inspiration for the villain Shan Yu from the Disney movie Mulan.

3/12/21

What do moody teens, tacky castles and Hot Topic have to do with ancient Rome? It's a goth thing, you wouldn't understand. Now the term goth is used to describe disagreeable teenagers who wear all black, shop at Hot Topic and complain 24/7. To avoid potential confusion, Goths and Emos aren't the same thing. The difference? I don't have the slightest clue, but according to South Park, Goths spend their time being angry at the world, whereas Emos spend their time thinking the world is angry with them. The word goth actually has its roots in the fierce Germanic tribes (Ostrogoths) that fought, and eventually sacked Rome in 410 CE (Visigoths). So how did the meaning of the word change so drastically? In the late Middle Ages, a style of architecture arose, characterized by

large, imposing cathedrals and castles. The term Gothic was applied to the style as a critique, the word even at that time being a synonym for barbaric. In other words, calling something Gothic was the same as calling something tacky. During the 18th and 19th centuries, a genre of dark, romantic literature called "Gothic Fiction" flourished. Characterized by novels such as Bram Stoker's Dracula, Mary Shelley's Frankenstein and the works of Edgar Allen Poe, the genre got its name from the Gothic locations in which the stories took place — for example, Dracula's dark, foreboding castle. In modern times, the word goth has been used to describe a subculture with its own style of music, and fashion. The dark, often gloomy Goth imagery was influenced by Gothic fiction, particularly horror movies. That's just another example of how the meaning of words can change so much over time that they no longer resemble their original meaning or intent.

3/11/21

What does the last pharaoh of Egypt and Romeo and Juliet have in common with ancient Rome? It all starts with a very familiar name -- Cleopatra. It turns out that she was the last ever pharaoh in Egypt. While she was born in Egypt, she traced her families origins to Macedonian Greece and Ptolemy, one of Alexander the Great’s generals that took the reigns of Egypt after Alexander’s death in 323 BCE. She became a pharaoh at 18 years old, although she had to share the power with her 10-year-old brother -- UGH! Three years after taking power, he exiled her. For reasons too complicated to go into now, eventually, Roman general Julius Caesar decided to intervene to see who should be the rightful ruler. Before making the decision, Cleopatra allegedly snuck into Caesar’s room by hiding herself in a rolled up carpet and "convinced" him to side with her. Cleopatra became Caesar’s mistress and soon bore him a son who she named Caesarion, which means

little Caesar (pizza, pizza!). Of course, that relationship didn't last. As you know, Caesar was assassinated for being too power-hungry. His close friend, Mark Antony was one of the leaders who maintained the power of the Roman Empire after he was killed. Antony and Octavian, who was chosen to succeed Caesar, fought a civil war against against the people who assassinated controversial ruler. Using her feminine wiles, Cleopatra wooed Mark Antony when she met him and he was so taken with her that the couple soon married.

Mark Antony settled in Egypt permanently and he and Cleopatra had three kids. Unfortunately for the couple, Octavian turned on Antony and eventually took control of Rome and Egypt. In the aftermath of the defeat, news reached Antony that Cleopatra had been killed. When he heard this, overcome with sorrow, he stabbed himself with a sword. However, the wound was not fatal so he began begging people to put him out of his misery. When she discovered this she told a messenger to fetch Antony and bring him to her. He died in her arms. Octavian then captured Cleopatra and imprisoned her. But she was proud, and would rather die than remain a prisoner of Octavian. A sympathetic admirer knew this, so they helped to smuggle a poisonous snake into one of the daily baskets of food brought to her. Cleopatra reached out her arm and let the snake deliver its venomous bite. She died soon after. Some believe this story may have influenced Shakespeare in his Romeo and Juliet masterpiece. Whether or not this story is a true Cleopatra fact, it’s clear why Shakespeare and so many other writers and artists found her so intriguing and featured her in their works. On a side note, when Octavian defeated Cleopatra, he was given the title

in the parts of the brain that enable people to pay attention, regulate emotions and control impulses. In ancient Rome, winemakers used lead pots to boil crushed grapes, and the empire's top sweetener was a syrup that was also cooked in lead pots, plus the empire’s aqueducts carried water through lead pipes and many Roman foods were sweetened with lead acetate. Some historians have claimed that its use may have resulted in widespread cases of severe arthritis, low birth rates, anemia and aggressive and erratic behavior among the Roman citizenry. In fact, a team of archaeologists and scientists recently discovered just how contaminated Roman tap water was. The team dredged sediment downstream from Rome and compared it to samples found in preserved Roman piping to create an historical record of lead pollution flowing from the Roman capital. Tap water from ancient Rome likely contained up to 100 times more lead than local spring water. And that is important because increased lead levels MAY cause an increase in crime, and some scientists claim there is data that proves this to be true. In America, lead emissions from tailpipes rose steadily from the early 1940s through the early 1970s, nearly quadrupling over that period. Then, as unleaded gasoline began to replace leaded gasoline, emissions plummeted. Intriguingly, violent crime rates followed the same upside-down U pattern. The only thing different was the time period: Crime rates rose dramatically in the '60s through the '80s, and then began dropping

steadily starting in the early '90s. The two curves looked eerily identical, but were offset by about 20 years. Researchers concluded that if you add a lag time of 23 years (the time between exposure as an infant and maturation into an adult), lead emissions from automobiles explain 90% of the variation in violent crime in America. Toddlers who ingested high levels of lead in the '40s and '50s really were more likely to become violent criminals in the '60s, '70s, and '80s. But was that the case for Rome? We're not quite sure. The people studying the lead contamination said levels of lead in Roman drinking water were a concern, but may not have been enough to cause widespread mental problems, or potentially drive up crime rates. So we're not sure if it "lead"

to the fall of Rome. But the jury is still out on what happened in Flint. Lead levels in Flint's city water are now below federal-action level, but the truly depressing part is that we might not get the full picture of how the lead poisoning affects the population of Flint for another 17 years.

3/9/21

The Romans built many grand structures that not only showed off their engineering prowess, but also left the ancient world in awe. However, only one of them still remains completely intact -- the Pantheon. It is the best preserved Ancient Roman monument. It is a bit of a mystery

how the Pantheon managed to survive barbarian raids when all the rest of Roman monuments had been shattered. Whatever the reasons are, the Pantheon is the only structure of its age and size in Rome that has successfully survived the damage of time and gravity. The most fascinating part of the Pantheon is its giant dome, with its famous hole in the top (the eye of the Pantheon, or oculus). The hole is 26 feet in diameter and is the only source of light in the building. The hole is said to be the connection between the temple and the gods above. Rain occasionally

falls through it, but the floor is slanted so it quickly drains the water if it manages to hit the floor. The dome itself was the largest in the world for 1,300 years and until today it remains the largest unsupported dome in the world! The diameter of the dome is 142 feet and is perfectly proportioned. That means that the Pantheon was designed so well that a giant sphere can fit snuggly inside the structure. Another example of how the Pantheon was an engineering wonder can bee seen in what was designed to happen every April 21. On that date,

the spring equinox, when the midday sun strikes a metal grille above the doorway, it saturates the outside courtyard with light. The Romans celebrated April 21 as the founding date of the city, and the impressive sight of their Emperor standing at the entrance of the Pantheon surrounded by light coming from inside the building might have been seen as something that, in effect, raised their emperor to the level of the gods. Of course, emperors don't use the Pantheon any more. In fact, it's no longer called the Pantheon. In the year 609 CE it became the first pagan temple to be transformed into a Christian church and therefore it was saved from being destroyed during the Middle Ages. Today it is a church dedicated to St. Mary of the Martyrs. Nonetheless it is called the Pantheon by virtually everybody and it seems to exist independent of religious rule and is more of a tribute to the past.

3/8/21

We all know now what gladiators did, but do we know who the gladiators were? It is commonly thought that ALL gladiators were slaves, but that's not the case. While most early combatants were conquered peoples, slaves and convicted criminals, grave inscriptions show that by the 1st century CE the demographics had started to change. Lured by the thrill of battle and the roar of the crowds, some free men began voluntarily signing contracts with gladiator schools in the hope of winning glory and prize money. That’s because by the time the Colosseum opened in 80 CE gladiator games had evolved from free-for-alls into a well-organized blood sport. Fighters were placed in classes based on their record, skill level and experience. Most

specialized in a particular fighting style and set of weaponry, and just like in The Hunger Games their weapons and fighting style closely resembled that of the areas from which they had been captured and therefore represented. Most popular were the 'thraeces' and 'murmillones', who fought with sword and shield, but there were also the 'equites,' who entered the arena on horseback; the 'essedarii', who battled from chariots; and the 'dimachaerus', who may have wielded two swords at once. Of all the popular gladiator types, perhaps the most unusual was the 'retiarius', who was armed with only a net and a trident. These warriors tried to ensnare their opponents with their net before moving in for the kill, but if they failed, they were left almost entirely defenseless. Another thing that might surprise you was that not all the gladiators were men. Female slaves were regularly condemned to the arena alongside their male counterparts, but a few citizens took up the sword of their own free will. Historians are not sure when women first suited up to fight as gladiators, but by the 1st century CE they had become a common fixture at the games. These lady warriors were not always taken seriously—the Emperor Domitian enjoyed pitting women against dwarves—but a few appear to have proven themselves in single combat. A marble relief dating to around the 2nd century CE depicts a

bout between two women dubbed 'Amazon' and 'Achillia',whom the inscription says fought to an honorable draw. But there’s no doubt that men were the big attraction. They won massive fame among the lower classes. Their portraits graced the walls of many public places; children played with gladiator action figures made of clay; and the most successful fighters even endorsed products just like the top athletes of today. They were also renowned for their ability to make Roman women swoon. Graffiti from Pompeii describes one fighter who “catches the girls at night in his net” and another who is “the delight of all the girls.” Many women wore hairpins and other jewelry dipped in gladiator blood, and some even mixed gladiator sweat into facial creams and other cosmetics.

3/4/21

What do the Minnesota Vikings, the Joker and Prince have in common with a Roman Emperor? They love to wear all purple. However, unlike the the Vikings, the Joker, or Prince, a Roman emperor might have you put to death for copying his style. On second thought, the Joker has killed people for less. First, a little history on what is clearly the greatest color ever in the history of the world. As we learned earlier in the school year the purple dye popularized by the Phoenicians comes from a dye made from the mucus glands of a

tropical sea snail, the murex. It required tens of thousands of shellfish to produce one ounce of Tyrian purple dye, making it very slow and costly to produce. And since poor people couldn't afford to wear the color the wealthy automatically gravitated towards purple. By the 3rd century BCE, Tyrian purple was worth more than gold -- literally. A pound of it cost three times the yearly wage of a Roman baker. Although the Greeks were the original customers, it was the Romans who became purple fanatics. In fact, in imperial Rome, the use of purple was highly regulated. At first, the color was reserved for VIPs. During the Roman Republic, it was worn by generals in their triumphs, or by magistrates at gladiatorial games, or by the consuls (the head of state). Eventually, the Romans created laws stipulating that only the

Emperor could wear a purple toga. The penalties for violating these laws could be harsh: fines, or the loss of property, or, depending on who you were, even your title. The Emperor Caligula had the King of Mauritania murdered for wearing a purple outfit better than his own, and Emperor Nero made it punishable by death for anyone else to wear the color, making sure that his time on the throne was truly a "Purple Reign".

3/3/21

What does North Korea have in common with ancient Rome? At one point each had the largest stadium in the world. The largest current sports facility is the Rungrado 1st of May Stadium in Pyongyang, North Korea, which has a capacity of

150,000 and hosts mainly soccer and gymnastic events. However, that pales in comparison to Rome's Circus Maximus. It is the oldest and largest public space in Rome. The Roman circus was the venue for horse and chariot racing, religious ceremonies, public feasts and athletics. A U-shaped structure with seats on three sides and a low wall running down the middle of the arena around which the chariots raced, it was rebuilt in the time of Julius Caesar (1st century BCE) to seat an estimated 150,000 spectators. Enlarged by later emperors, it reached a maximum size under Constantine during 4th century CE

. At its largest, it was about six football fields long and four football fields wide. At that size, some believe it had a maximum seating capacity of 250,000, which would make it the largest ever stadium. Another thing North Korea and ancient Rome had in common was a lack of creativity when naming their enormous sports structures. Rungrado 1st of May Stadium is named after the body of water it's near and the day it was completed and the Circus Maximus just means "large circus." At least with Rome, what they lacked in the creative naming department, they more than made up for with the activities that occurred inside the building. During horse races, two-wheeled chariots were usually pulled by four horses, but occasionally, ostriches, dogs, or camels were used instead. Chariots were very light so they could go as fast as possible, and were probably made of wicker and leather; it would have been like driving a basket on wheels! Accidents frequently caused injuries and deaths. To keep their balance, charioteers would tie the reins around his waist. The downside to this was that if they were thrown from their chariot, they could be dragged to their death. To prevent this from happening, they would keep a sharp knife in their belts so they could cut themselves free! Four to twelve chariots raced at a time, and the course usually consisted of seven

laps around the arena. Like the Colosseum, admission to the Circus Maximus was free and all levels of Roman society, from the emperor to the urban poor, came to see the chariot races. Like gladiator games, chariot races were very popular with the Roman people. The last race at the Circus Maximus was held in 549 CE, almost a millennium after the first races. Today very little remains of the structure, except for the grass covered racing track and the outline of the central barrier.

3/2/21

Earlier in the year we learned about what The Hunger Games has in common with ancient Greece, but what does it have in common with ancient Rome? As you all know, the series of books paint a dystopian future in which children from each district of a nation fight to survive a barbaric competition in large part for the entertainment of the all-powerful Capitol, which televises the event. Further background about the birth of The Hunger Games helps to better explain the link between the series and ancient Rome. Seventy-four years before the events of the first book began, districts in the nation revolted against the oppressive Capitol. The Capitol instituted the annual Hunger Games as a yearly reminder to the districts of the power it has over them. However, the Capitol is also highly dependent upon the districts, from which it imports large amounts of agricultural and manufacturing products. This was very similar to ancient Rome. Farmers in the city of Rome were unable to raise crops to compete economically with produce

from these outside territories and therefore the government distracted them with 'bread and circuses,' a term coined by the Roman satirist Juvenal. The 'bread' was distributions of grain, and the 'circuses' were the gladiator games. An even more direct link can be made when you realize that Juvenal’s original Latin phrase, is 'panem et circenses,' which is why author Suzanne Collins named her dystopian society Panem. Taking place in an outdoor 'arena,' the Games bear a distinct resemblance to the gladiatorial games of ancient Rome, in which slaves and criminals engaged in bloody and sometimes fatal combat before large crowds of riveted spectators. It’s also worth noting that the adolescents who compete in the Hunger Games are known as 'tributes,' a word used in ancient Rome (tributa) to refer to the taxes paid to the central government for protection.

3/1/21

What do food stamps and government assistance have to do with ancient Rome? As it turns out, the Empire may have been the first to invent the concept and implementation of wide scale welfare. Ancient Rome was the wellspring for many modern government programs, including measures that subsidized food, education and other expenses for the needy. These entitlement programs date back to 122 BCE,

when the tribune Gaius Gracchus (of the famous Gracchus brothers) instituted lex frumentaria, a law that ordered Rome’s government to supply its citizens with a certain amount of cheaply priced grain. In 58 BCE, the politician Clodius turned the subsidy into a free grain program. However, the program worked too well. Within a decade, by the time Julius Caesar came to power, 320,000 of the one million people of Rome were benefiting from the free grain. As the expense was considerable, Caesar held a special census in 46 BCE and began employing a test to assure that only the most needy received the benefit. Today, we refer to that as 'means testing.' In other words, the government tests you to see if you have the means to pay for things on your own. In Ancient

Rome Caesar discovered that only 150,000 of the poorest citizens of Rome were able to benefit from the distribution of food. Caesar's nephew/adopted son, Augustus, the first true emperor of Rome, expanded the program to 200,000 beneficiaries in the early days of the Empire. This early form of welfare was expanded under Emperor Trajan, who implemented a program known as 'alimenta' (to feed) to help feed, clothe and educate orphans and poor children. Other items including corn, oil, wine, bread and pork were

eventually added to the list of price-controlled goods, which may have been collected with tokens called 'tesserae', an early form of food stamp. These generous handouts helped Roman emperors win favor with the public, but it may have come at a cost. Some historians have argued that the program may have led to the eventual death of the Roman empire, so it might be fair to call the free-grain policy a real

cereal killer. However, others note that the fall of the western half of the Roman Empire took place on September 4, 476 CE, which is nearly 600 years after Gracchus introduced the grain law. Either way, it looks as though the Romans were the first to create specific government policies to ensure that even the poorest would have something to eat. That's food for thought!

2/26/21

What does laundry detergent, toothpaste, and mouthwash have in common? In ancient Rome they were all made from urine! Urine? Yes, urine. Ah, the cleansing power of pee: If you’ve investigated the ingredients in your household cleaners, you may have noticed a prevalent ingredient:

ammonia. Ammonia is produced when urine begins to chemically break down. Ammonia is a natural teeth whitener and can actually be used to help prevent the formation of cavities! In fact, four out of five dentists recommend using urine to improve you dental hygeine (j/k 😂). The Romans used it as a mouthwash and mixed it with a powder made from volcanic rock to make toothpaste. In fact, urine was so effective that it was used in toothpastes and mouthwashes up until the 1700s. Another common use of urine was to clean clothes. As a base, ammonia is a useful cleanser because dirt and grease–which are slightly acidic–get neutralized by the ammonia. Laundrymen used to set out clay pots in front of their shops and whoever was passing by could just pee into the pot. Whenever the pot became full, the laundrymen would bring it in and then dilute it with water. A worker

would then stand in a tub of watered down urine and stomp on the clothes, similar to a modern washing machine’s agitator. This practice became so popular that urine was in high demand in the Roman Empire. In the first century CE, the Roman emperor Nero levied what was known as the vectigal urinae, which translates from Latin into “urine tax”. This tax was placed on the collection of the liquid at public urinals. The buyer of the urine paid the tax, then it was collected from underground waste receptacles and recycled. Although the tax was eventually removed, it was reenacted around 70 CE when Vespasian became the new emperor. When he took the throne, the Roman Empire had just emerged from a civil war that almost bankrupted Rome and brought about a near collapse of the empire. Vespasian began the task of repairing and restoring Rome by levying a series of taxes to raise funds, one of which was a charge for the collection of urine. And you know what happens if you don't pay the tax -- urine trouble! When Vespasian's son, and future emperor, Titus, complained

about the disgusting nature of the tax, his father held up a gold coin and asked whether he felt offended by its smell. When Titus said "No", Vespasian replied, "Yet it comes from urine". This led to the famous Roman phrase pecunia non olet (money does not stink), which is still used today to say that the value of money is not tainted by its origins.

2/25/21

The Romans were heavily influenced by Greek culture, particularly in the area of religion. Almost all of the gods of

Rome were "borrowed" from Greece. The Romans changed the names of the gods; Zeus became Jupiter, Poseidon became Neptune, Aphrodite became Venus (they obviously liked naming their gods after planets). However, the Romans did manage to create a god or two of their own. Perhaps the most interesting trio of deities they worshiped were linked to bathroom activities. Cloacina was the sewer goddess, Stercutius was the god of dung, and Crepitus was the toilet god, who not only ruled over the latrine (toilet), but was also the god of flatulence. Yes, the ancient Romans had a god for farts. Cloacina, was a very

important goddess. She was summoned when the sewers were backed up or blocked. In the eighth century BCE, king Titus Tatius even erected a shrine in honor of Cloacina, revealing Rome’s dependency on her in keeping the sewer system running effectively. Crepitus was a somewhat less glorified god. By the way, if the Romans had a habit of naming their gods after planets, why didn't they call him Uranus? 😂 Anyway, he was summoned when one was constipated or had diarrhea. Talk about a crappy job! Even Stercutius was an important divine figure in Rome at the time. Because of his godly ruling of all things dung and excrement, he was connected to agriculture—manure was a

necessary factor in keeping crops lush and fertile. But why so many toilet deities? Romans were actually very afraid of toilets, convinced that demons and devils lurked in the sewer system. They believed a person was most exposed while sitting on the toilet, leaving them vulnerable to the evils below. In order to counteract this, the Romans were faithful to their toilet deities. They hoped the gods would keep the sewer unblocked, clear up any unfortunate bodily functions, help the growth of crops, and protect people from any foul or vile spirits waiting to attack you while you're on the potty!

2/24/21

During our archaeological dig on Tuesday we talked about how aqueducts brought millions of gallons of fresh water to Rome, but what did Rome do with all that H2O? The Romans were famous, among other things, because of their public baths and hygiene practices. The capital of the Republic was the first large city in the world with running water and public

fountains. There were many public baths and public bathrooms. Let's focus on the bathrooms. These locations were used to take care of obvious physical needs, but they also served a critical social function as well. That's because there were no walls and no dividers to separate people. When you did your business, you did it in front of senators, soldiers, merchants and artisans alike. Imagine how strange it would be to have a present day public facility where there was nothing separating you from the other users. Yuck! Double yuck! Of course, for them it was the norm. They happily used the bathroom while discussing the last debate in the Senate, the latest fashion show or last

week’s gladiator combat. Stranger still was the method they used to wipe themselves. In absence of toilet paper, the No. 1 option for a No. 2 was a wooden stick with a sponge attached at one end (often, literally a sea sponge), or some type of cloth or animal wool. If you look carefully at the picture above, you can see the gutters just in front of the seats, where sea water ran continuously so they could rinse their sponges after each use. That's right, just like the bathrooms themselves, the sponge sticks were "public" and they were used by hundreds of people every day. Only the wealthier citizens carried their own. A second option, when public bathrooms sat in the poorer neighborhoods, was simply to use the hand, which was rapidly washed in a fountain installed for that purpose. Most likely you would wipe with your left hand. This is why it was incredibly rude to point at someone with the left hand. In many cultures it is still a big no-no to hand something to someone using your left hand.

Fortunately for the Romans the "high five" hadn't been invented yet. Unfortunately, the handshake had been invented. So just in case someone cracks the code to time travel and you go back to ancient Rome, you might want to avoid shaking hands with anyone, or at the very least bring your own sponge on a stick!

2/23/21

What do twins, wolves and woodpeckers have to do with ancient Rome? According to legend, without them the city and empire would never have been founded. As the story goes, there was a king, Amulius, that kicked his brother Numitor off the throne. He then forced Numitor's daughter, Rhea Silva, to remain a virgin in order to prevent her from having sons who might one day try to claim his throne. However, Mars, the Roman god of war, had other plans. He impregnated her with twin boys, Romulus and Remus. Upon discovering this, Amulius ordered the infants drowned in the Tiber River. However, the basket in which they were placed floated down the Tiber

and came to rest at the future site of Rome. There a she-wolf and a woodpecker—both animals sacred to Mars—suckled and fed them until they were found by a shepherd. The shepherd took the boys home to his wife and raised the pair as their own. The twins, still ignorant of their true origins, proved to be natural leaders. When they discovered the truth of their birth, they killed Amulius and restored Numitor as the rightful ruler. Rather than wait to inherit the throne, they chose to found a new city. Unfortunately, as we know all too well, siblings don't always get along. They quarreled about where to build the city. Rome is built on seven hills. Romulus preferred the Palatine Hill, Remus preferred the Aventine Hill. To settle the dispute they agreed to seek a sign from the gods. Each took position on their respective hills and prepared a sacred space there. Remus saw six birds take flight and saw it as a positive sign; but Romulus said he saw twelve. Romulus claimed this gave him the right to decide. Remus disagreed, arguing that regardless of the number of birds, he saw his sign first. Romulus was hearing none of it and set to work with his supporters building the city wall in his desired spot. Remus criticized

and belittled the new wall, and in a final insult to the new city and its founder, he leaped over it. Romulus killed his twin, saying "So perish every one that shall hereafter leap over my wall." Romulus completed his city and named it Roma after himself. Then he divided his fighting men into regiments of approximately 5 ,000 infantry and 300 cavalry, which he called "legions". From the rest of the populace he selected 100 of the most noble and wealthy fathers to serve as his council and be the true "Fathers of Rome." Since the Latin word for father is patres, he called these men Patricians. They were also its elders, and since senex is the Latin word for elder, they were therefore known as Senators.

2/22/21

What do the 1972 Miami Dolphins, the 2003-04 Arsenal Gunners, and boxing champ Floyd Mayweather have in common with Alexander the Great? They never experienced the sour taste of defeat. The '72 Dolphins went 17-0 and won Super Bowl VII, the Gunners went undefeated in English Premier League play in the 2003-04 season, and Mayweather retired with a 50-0 record (27 by KO) and was a champ in five different weight classes. But they all pale in comparison to Alexander the Great. His tactics and strategies are still studied in military academies today. From his first victory at age 18, Alexander never did anything other than win. In fact, his name should be A_exander, because he never took an "L". After securing his kingdom in Greece, in 334 BCE Alexander crossed into Asia where he won a series of battles

with the Persians under Darius III. He went on to conquer the largest empire the ancient world had ever seen, stretching from Greece to India. And just in case people forgot who was conquering them, he made sure to name more than 70 cities after himself throughout his empire. Believe it or not, he even named one city after his horse (Bucephalus). He also built up the capital city of Alexandria, which at one point held the world's largest library, complete with the largest collection of cultural knowledge in the world. That information was then translated into Greek. He wanted to increase the size of his empire further, but constant fighting took a toll and in 326 BCE his exhausted troops decided they'd had enough. They refused to continue conquering land beyond India, and told Alexander that a truly great leader knows when it is time to stop fighting. Without the support of his army, Alexander had no choice but to turn back. On his way home, in 323 BCE Alexander the Great fell ill after downing a bowl of wine at a

party. Two weeks later, the 32-year-old ruler was dead. Given that Alexander’s father had been murdered by his own bodyguard, suspicion fell on those surrounding Alexander, most notably his general Antipater and Antipater’s son Cassander (who would eventually order the murders of Alexander’s widow and son). In modern times, medical experts have speculated that malaria, lung infection, liver failure or typhoid fever may have done Alexander in, but no one knows for sure. What we do know is that Alex the G was most definitely a G, and will go down as one of the greatest military minds the world has ever known.

2/19/21

When we last left Oedipus, he'd unwittingly killed his father and married his mother. When he and his mommy/wife found out, she hanged herself and he stabbed out his eyes. So how much worse could things get for this family? Since we're talking about a Greek tragedy, lots worse. Let me tell you about the story of Oedipus' daughter, Antigone. After Oedipus was driven from Thebes, his two daughters, Antigone and Ismene, accompanied him into exile, where he wandered for a time before eventually dying. His two sons, Eteocles and Polyneices, stayed behind in Thebes. Until they

were old enough to rule over Thebes, their uncle Creon was in charge of the city-state. When the boys were grown, they agreed to rule Thebes in alternating fashion. Eteocles ruled first, but when his year was up he refused to give up the title. This greatly upset Polyneices, so he hatched a plan to win the throne. Polyneices had married the daughter of the king of the city-state of Argos, and so he got the king to agree to let him lead the soldiers of Argos and six other city-states in an assault on Thebes. Thebes drove off the attackers, but in the course of the battle the two brothers killed each other. Their uncle Creon assumed the throne and decreed that Eteocles was to be buried with honors. Unfortunately, because he viewed Polyneices as a traitor, he was to be left unburied, to rot in the sun and be eaten by scavengers. The

headstrong Antigone disobeyed the order, was caught in the act of attempting to bury her brother, and was sentenced to die by being walled up in a cave (buried alive). When her fiancé Haemon, who was the son of Creon, attempted to free her, he discovered that she had already hanged herself. Cursing his father, he then stabbed himself. Meanwhile the blind prophet Teiresias warned Creon that the gods were extremely angry that he had left a dead person unburied while burying another person alive. Creon finally agreed to bury Polyneices and release Antigone. Unfortunately, by the time he reached the cave, Antigone and his son were already dead. He then found out that his wife had already heard the news and as a result she had ALSO committed suicide. And that's the end of the story, which begs the question...did anything good EVER happen in Greek plays?

2/18/21

Today's Fact of the Day is about one of Sophocles' most famous plays, the tragedy Oedipus Rex. But first, I have a riddle for you. What walks on four feet in the morning, two in the afternoon, and three at night? The correct answer is a human. They crawl on all fours as a baby; they walk on two legs as an adult; and need a walking stick when old. That riddle was solved by the title character Oedipus, but more on that later. The story begins with King Laius, the

ruler of Thebes. He was warned by an oracle that his own son would one day kill him and then that son would wind up marrying his own mother. So when his wife Jocasta had a baby boy, he ordered that the baby be left in the mountains to die. A shepherd found the infant and delivered him to a couple who desperately wanted a child King Polybus of Corinth and his wife, the queen. They decided to never reveal to Oedipus that he had been adopted. When he became a man, Oedipus visited the oracle at Delphi and learned of the prophecy. Worried for his father's safety, he resolved never to return to Corinth. He then set off towards Thebes. During his travels he encountered King Laius, although not only was he unaware that was his real father, but he was unaware that Laius was a king. After a heated argument led to a fight, Oedipus killed him, unwittingly fulfilling the first part of the prophecy. Continuing on his way, Oedipus found Thebes was being plagued by the Sphinx, who put the aforementioned riddle to all who

passed it and destroyed those who could not answer. Oedipus solved the riddle, and in a fit of rage the Sphinx killed herself. Since the people of Thebes no longer had a king, as a reward, they gave Oedipus the job and the hand of the widowed queen, his mother, Jocasta, unwittingly fulfilling the second part of the prophecy. They lived happily for a time and had two sons and two daughters. Then a dreadful plague came upon Thebes. The blind prophet Tiresias declared that the murderer of Laius was living in the city, and that the plague would not end until he was caught. A messenger then arrived from Corinth, announcing the death of King Polybus and asking Oedipus to return and rule the Corinthians. It was then that Oedipus told Jocasta the real reason he'd left Corinth. Jocasta told him that there was no need to fear oracles, for an oracle had once predicted that her first husband would be killed by his own son, and instead he had been murdered by a stranger on the road.

Suddenly Oedipus remembered that fatal encounter on the road years earlier and knew that he had met and killed his REAL father, Laius. It also meant that he had married his mother, giving a whole new meaning to the phrase "save that drama for your mama." Faced with that realization Jocasta hanged herself. Oedipus then seized a pin from her dress and used it to gouge out his eyes. Remember, they wouldn't be called tragedies if they had happy endings. In large part, theses dramas were used to teach moral lessons and show the how people interacted with their faith and their gods. The message of this play was that you can NEVER escape the fate that gods have planned for you.

2/17/21

Today's ancient Greek "belief" is the story of Tantalus. He was the king of the Greek city-state of Lydian and was a favorite among the Gods of Olympus. In fact, he was frequently invited to dine with the deities. However, Tantalus did not prove worthy of all these favors and honors, because he committed several crimes and injustices against the Gods. For instance, he stole

ambrosia and nectar, the food and drink of the gods, from Mt. Olympus and took them to his friends trying to impress them. Tantalus also revealed some very important secrets that Zeus himself had confided in him (you know, winning lotto numbers, Big Mac's secret sauce, the Colonel's original recipe, etc.) Finally, Tantalus stole the favorite pet of Zeus, his golden dog. It is not absolutely certain that Tantalus himself did it, but at the very least he hid the dog for a known thief and then he refused to return it. Though all the above mentioned crimes were pretty insulting to the Gods, they did not punish him at first, hoping that he would learn from his mistakes. Unfortunately, that didn't happen. His final crime was the worst of all. Tantalus invited all the Gods of Olympus to a feast. But either because he wanted to test their genius or because he did not have enough food, he decided to commit one of the most

disgusting acts in Greek mythology. He killed his son Pelops, roasted the pieces of his body, and served him to the Gods. However, the Gods became aware of what was going on and refused to eat any of the meal, with the exception of Demeter, who accidentally ate the shoulder of Pelops. According to the myth, Zeus decided to restore Pelops back to life, and Demeter (who apparently couldn't shoulder the guilt of eating him for dinner) gave him an arm made of pure ivory. This act could not be ignored so the Gods finally punished Tantalus: Zeus killed him and destroyed everything he had created, including his kingdom. But that was not the end…Zeus brought Tantalus to Tartarus, the deepest pit in the Underworld, and placed him in a lake with a fruit tree above him. Unfortunately for Tantalus, whenever he tried to take a piece of fruit or drink a

little water, both the tree and the water would move just out of his reach. The punishment of Tantalus was the frustration of knowing that no matter how hungry or thirsty he became, he would never be able to satisfy his needs. And so it is no coincidence that the definition for the word "tantalize" means to torment or tease someone with the sight or promise of something that is unobtainable.

2/16/21

Normally I would reserve this next Fact of the Day for February 14, but seeing as how we missed that day due to our four-day break, I'll just share it with you now. Who is St. Valentine and what does he have to do with hearts and flowers? It all begins in the ancient Roman Empire. Legend holds that on February 14 around the year 270 CE, a holy priest named Valentine was executed under the rule of Emperor Claudius II. Under 'Claudius the Cruel,' Rome was involved in many unpopular and bloody military campaigns. The emperor had to maintain a strong army, but was having a difficult time getting soldiers to join the military. Claudius believed that Roman men were unwilling to join the army because of their strong attachment to their wives and

families. To get rid of the problem, Claudius banned all marriages and engagements in Rome. Valentine, realizing the injustice of the decree, defied Claudius and continued to perform marriages for young lovers in secret. When Valentine’s actions were discovered he was arrested, condemned to be beaten to death with clubs, and to have his head cut off. Legend also has it that while in jail, Valentine left a farewell note for the jailer’s daughter, who had become his friend during his incarceration, and signed it “From Your Valentine.” For his great service, Valentine was named a saint after his death. But that's not the end of the story. The holiday may have been mixed with the ancient Roman Feast of Lupercalia, a pagan festival of love. Celebrated on February 15, Lupercalia was a

fertility festival dedicated to Faunus, the Roman god of agriculture. Priests would sacrifice a goat, for fertility, and a dog, for purification. They would then separate the goat’s hide into strips, dip them into the sacrificial dog blood and take to the streets, gently slapping both women and crop fields with the goat hide. Far from being fearful, Roman women welcomed the touch of the hides because it was believed to make them more fertile in the coming year. Later in the day, according to legend, All the Single Ladies in the city would place their names in a big pot. The city’s bachelors would each choose a name and become paired for the year with his chosen woman. These matches often ended in marriage. In 496 CE, Pope Gelasius decided to put an end to the Feast of Lupercalia, and declared that February 14 be celebrated as St. Valentine’s Day. Gradually, the holiday was

2/11/21

Today's ancient Greek "belief" is the story of Orpheus. He was the son of Apollo (God of Music) and Calliope, one of the nine muses of the arts. Apollo gave his son a lyre and taught him how to play; Orpheus did to such perfection that even Apollo was surprised. It is said that nothing could resist his music and melody, neither friends nor enemies nor beasts. I don't want to harp on it, but even trees and rocks were entranced with his music. Eventually, Orpheus fell in love with Eurydice, a woman of unique beauty. In fact she was so beautiful that one day as she walked through the woods, a shepherd saw her and was irresistibly drawn to her. He started chasing her and making unwanted advances. She tried to run away, but in her retreat she stepped on a poisonous snake, was bitten, and soon died. Upon hearing the news, Orpheus sang his grief with his lyre and managed to move everything living or not in the world; both humans and Gods were deeply touched by his sorrow and grief. Desperate, he went to the Underworld searching for his beloved. First, he

had to get past the vicious three-headed guard dog Cerberus, who guarded the gates to the Underworld. Orpheus used his music to soothe the savage beast and calmed the animal so that he could pass. Orpheus then presented himself in front of Hades and his wife Persephone. He started playing for them and even the cold heart of Hades began to melt. Hades told Orpheus that he could take Eurydice with him on one condition; Eurydice would follow him while walking out to the light from the caves of the Underworld, but he should not look back at her before reaching the exit or he would lose her forever. Orpheus was delighted; he thanked the Gods and left to ascend to the mortal world. As they left, he was trying to hear