Sample Entries for an Historical Dictionary of Mediterranean Nautical Terms

The English headword is followed, where the Mediterranean terms can be grouped etymologically, by an etymon whose origin is given, if known, in the final section of the entry. (A headword entry marked "(misc)" subsumes those Mediterranean terms which do not belong to one of the separate etymological types.) There follows a definition, given only under the first of several identical headwords. If a Mediterranean term is not followed by a definition, its meaning is assumed to be that of the headword. Terms for structural terms are grouped alphabetically at the end of the appendix. * indicates a reconstructed, unattested form.

Terms cited from the following sources are the usual modern (i.e., XVIII-XIXc.) form, unless otherwise qualified: A&M (Cat), Appleton Dict. (Port), de Kerchove (Fr, Eng, Ger), de la Victoria (Sp), DMA (Ital, Gen, Ven), Falconer (Eng, Fr), Gateau (Arab (Tunisia)), Hoare (Ital), Jal (Fr), Kourbelis (Gk), Leitão (Port), Mistral (Prov), O'Sc (Sp, Fr, Ital, Eng)), Paasch (Fr, Ger, Ital, Span), Redhouse (Turk), Rosamani (Ital (N Adriatic)), Stratico (Ven), Wehr (Modern Standard Arabic)

BALE (a common form of packaging for cloth, spices and similar cargoes)

Port. bala (Appleton Dict. s.v.)

Sp bala (XIIIc., < Cat < Fr balle; Corom. Breve s.v.)

Cat bala (1249, A&M; c. 1300, Consolat chap. 13, Twiss 1874 (v.3) p. 84)

Fr balle (c. 1268, Dauzat et al. 1971 s.v.); (a package sewn up in cloth; Jal 1850 s.v.)

Prov balo (Mistral s.v.); (ML) bala (of fabric; 1233 (Marseilles), Bautier s.v.)

Gen (ML) balla (of a ship's cargo; 1200 (Genoa, notarial doc.), Byrne 1930 p. 70)

Ital balla (c. 1310-40, Pegolotti (1936) p. 36); < OFr balle (Devoto 1968 s.v.)

Ven balla: "nolliçado a balla [chartered by the bale]" (c. 1380, Zibaldone da Canal (1967) p. 39)

Gk mpala (Kourbelis s.v.)

Turk balya (Akdikmen s.v.)

MSArab (i)bala (Wehr 1976 s.v.)

Eng bale (1350-1400, < AngloFr bale < Frankish *balla (cf. OHG balo), RH2)

Given the Germanic origin of the word, bale probably spread into the Mediterranean from French.

BOWLINE (a line attached to the weather leech of a square sail to haul it forward, allowing the ship to point as high into the wind as possible)

Port bolina (Leitão 1963 s.v.); (1557, Afonso de Albuquerque, Jal s.v.)

Sp bolina (1492, Columbus Cartas; < Fr bouline; Corominas Breve s.v.)

Cat bolina, borina (A&M s.v.); borina (XIVc.; DCECH s.v. bolina)

Fr bouline (the modern form; Jal 1831 s.v.); boesline (1155, Wace; < Eng bowline; Dauzat et al. 1971 s.v. bouline); boline (XIIIc., Roman de Tristan, Jal s.v.; 1382-84 Rouen, Bréard 1893 p. 92); boryne (1541 L'Havre, Jal s.v.)

Prov boulino, borino (Mistral s.v.)

Gen borina (1495, KKT #113)

Ital bolina (Hoare s.v.); borina, (1607, Crescentio, Jal s.v.); burina (Jal 1850 s.v.)

Ven borina (c. 1445, Anderson 1925 p. 159); (1715, Jal s.v.)

Croat burina (Jal 1850 s.v.)

Gk mpourina (Kourbelis s.v.); (XVIc., Delatte 1946 p. 493)

Tu burina (in naval usage only; KKT #113)

Arab (NAfr) boulina (Jal 1850 s.v.); burîna, bulîna (Tunisia, Gateau 1946 p.161)

The ultimate source is Germanic--Onions (1966 s.v.) suggests MLG boline `bow-line"--and French is the intermediary. KKT (#113) believe the Mediterranean variant in -r- originated in Genoa. There are diminutive forms referring to the bowline of one of the upper sails: Sp bolinche (topgallant bowline; c.1700, F. Gamboa, Gili Gaya s.v.); Fr boulinette (18811, Jal s.v.); Prov boulineto (topgallant bowline; KKT #113); Ital borinetta (1607, Crescentio, Jal s.v. borina)

COMITO (galley officer of rank varying from admiral in Byzantine times to captain to first mate in the Middle Ages and Renaissance)

Port comitre (subordinate to mestre; XVIc., Leitão 1963 s.v.)

Sp "comitres...son cabdillos sso el almirante [are commanders subordinate to the admiral]" (c. 1260, Las Siete Partidas 2.24.4, Jal s.v.); "el Cómitre, quien de dia y de noche debe velar y mirar en la suya, y en la chusma [who day and night must watch over his own affairs and those of the (galley) crew]" (1354, Capmany, Vidos 1939 p. 331); comite (ranked between capitano and sotocomite; 1573, Genoa, Jal s.v. comite); "comitre...el que rije la galera [the one who maintains discipline in the galley]" (1587, García de Palacio f.138v.)

Cat comit (captain; c. 1300, Consolat, chap. 185, Twiss 1873 (v. 3) p. 350); (subordinate galley-officer) (1343, Chron. del Rey en Jacme; (paid 20 florins (about [[sterling]]11 per month; see Jal s.v. patron), 1406) (Jal s.v. 2.comit)

Fr comite (galley-captain) (XIIIc. as comite, comistre, Vidos 1939 p. 330);"homme saige et expert...qui avoit nom de comistre ou noclier [wise and experienced man called comistre or noclier] (i.e. first mate; late XIVc., Mézières, Coopland 1969 v.1 p. 539); "monter nauchierz a la cage, marinyers vouger, et comistres siffler [nauchierz climb into the top, the sailors row, and the comistres whistle]" (late XIVc., Chronique de Savoye, Jal s.v. cage); "Gaiges: Pour le patron xxvi fleurins; pour le comict, xxiiii fl.; pour le sous-comict, xv fl.[Pay: for the captain 26 florins; for the comict, 24; for the sous-comict, 15 ]" (c. 1520, Antoine de Conflans, Jal s.v. comict); (one per galley, paid [[sterling]]10 per month; c. 1550, Stolonomie, Jal s.v. comite); (Colbert complains that too many comites--and other galley officers--are foreigners; 1679, Jal s.v.)

Prov come(s), comi (Mistral s.v.); (ML) comitus (of war-galley; 1287, Bautier s.v.)

Gen (ML) "admiratus, comites et naucleri dictarum galearum [admiral, captains and mates of the said galleys]" (1261, treaty between Genoa and the Byzantine Empire; Jal s.v. comes); (subordinate to master of a galley; 1248, Jal s.v. sagittea)

Ital còmito, còmite (= mod. nostromo [boatswain]; DMA s.v.); (ML) comiti (pl.) (of galleys; 1161, Vidos 1939 p. 330); (ML) gomites (pl.) (XIIc. Pisa, Vidos 1939 p. 330); (ML) comitus (1282 Naples, Jal s.v. prothontinus); "el patrone, over el cometo, overo lo scrivano" (1397 Ancona (statutes) where also ghometo, Jal s.vv.); "Commito...dicesi anchor nostro huomo...il su luogo mentre si nauiga, è nel Quartier di Poppa, nell'entrare i porti sù l'arrombate [is also called nostro huomo [our man; cf. boatswain]...his place while under sail is aft; on entering port, on the forecastle]" (1602, Crescentio p.93). In the XIIIc., galley commanders, who had been called patroni, came to be referred to as comiti. The latter term came, by the late XIVc. to refer to a lower rank (Vidos 1939 p. 331).

Ven còmito (1310), (ML) comitus (1278) (Cortelazzo 1970 p. 70). Prati (1970 s.v. còmito) believes the Venetian term to be a rather late borrowing from Byz Gk, occurring at a time when komet- would no longer have been taken into Ven as *comedo.

Croat kumid `comite de galère' (Jal s.v.)

Gk komes (= Lat comes, VIc., Codex Justinianus 1.4.20, LSJ s.v.); (title of various provincial governors; IX-Xc., Ostrogorsky 1969 pp. 251, 301); (military commander of a coastal district; c. 900, Eickhoff 1966 p.85); (commander of 3-5 dromons; c. 900, Leo VI Naumachica paragr. 25, Dain 1943 p. 23); (captain, XIV-XVIIc., overseer of galley slaves, XVIIc.; KKT #789)

Turk kömi `overseer of galley slaves' (1518, common in XVI-XVIIc., KKT #789)

The ultimate etymon is Lat comes (stem comit-) `companion' which came in Imperial times to refer to government officials (IIc., Tacitus Historia 1.88 (`retainer of the emperor'); IVc., (commander of the "Saxon shore" of Britain); Vc., Codex Theodosianus, Dauzat et al. 1971 s.v. comite). (Prati (1970 s.v. còmito) gives, without citing sources, also the meanings `ispettore della navigazione sul Tevere; ispettore dei porti [inspector of navigation on the Tiber; inspector of ports]".) The word is borrowed into Byz Gk as komes (stem komet-) by 373 (Athanasius, Sophocles 1870 s.v.) and developes the meaning of `naval commander' by the IXc. It appears that the term was borrowed by Italian (presumably Venetian) by XIIc. from the Greek. Indigenous development from Lat comite(m) resulted in western Romance forms of the type /konte/ (Ital conte, Fr conte > comte, Sp conde `count (nobleman)'), attested X-XIc. and not in the type /kómito/ which is found in naval usage. (In northern Italian, the outcome would probably have been of the type /gomedo/; cf. Lat cubitu(m) > Gen *govedo > go(d)a.) The fact that the term appears in notarial and diplomatic Latin does not indicate a Latin etymology: technical terms in documents were usually mere Latinizations of vernacular forms. The devaluation of the term, from `admiral' in Byzantine times through `captain' in early Romance usage to `mate; overseer of galley slaves' is mirrored in the development of the Gk naukleros from `captain' to `boatswain' (see nauclerus). The intrusive -r- in the OFr, Sp and Port forms is probably due to analogy with those languages' words for `master'.

Italian sottocomito, referring to the direct subordinate of the comito (1602, Crescentio p. 93 as sottocommito) also diffuses rapidly through the western Mediterranean: Port soto comitre (Jal 1850 s.v.; XVIc. as sotacomito, Leitão 1974), Sp sotacomitre (O'Sc 1831 s.v.), Cat sotacòmit (1359, A&M s.v.), Fr sous-comite (1641; c. 1520, Antoine de Conflans, as sous-comict; c. 1550, Stolonomie, as soubz-comite; Jal s.vv.). There were usually two of these officers per galley, one amidships and the other forward (Jal s.v. sous-comite).

FONDACO (merchants’ inn/warehouse)

Portuguese alfandega ‘custom house; noisy place’ (Houaiss & Avery s.v.)

Spanish alhóndiga ‘grain exchange’; alfondega (1032, S-Albornoz León 27, Oelschläger 1940 s.v.); alfondeca (treaty between Alfonso I of Aragon and the Moors, 1115-9 Tudela), alfondica (1117 Toledo, Torres Balbás 1946 ‘Las alhóndigas’ p. 448); < Arabic al-funduq (Entwistle 1962 p. 128)

Spanish fondac (Moroccan caravan stop, DEI s.v.); fundaq (c. 1100 Seville), fondaque (1166 Toledo), (Medieval Latin, ML) fundicum (treaty between the emir and Genoa, 1188 Mallorca, Torres Balbás 1946 ‘Las alhóndigas’ p. 452-3)

Spanish fonda ‘inn’ (c. 1790, < Fr fonde (merchant’s inn), 12-14c., < Arabic funduq, Corominas Breve s.v., but see discussion below)

Catalan alfóndech ‘granary’ (1272, Ramón Llull, and 1315 as alfóndega, A&M s.vv.)

Catalan fondec (1285, Capmany Mem. 4.12, A&M s.v.)

French fondouk (16c., as fondique, < Arabic, Dauzat et al. 1971 s.v.). This is probably a Provençal form closely akin to the Old Catalan and Genoese words. It is futile to try to establish a point of origin in the northwestern Mediterranean: the term first appears in the 12c. and is attested in all three languages within decades. It is a commercial term spread largely through the medieval Latin of notaries and diplomats.

French (ML) funda (XIIc., treaty between Venice and the Kingdom of Jerusalem), fonde (13c., Joinville) (du Cange s.v. funda); but (base, market, warehouse), deverbal < fonder < Lat fundare < fundus (‘base, farm, foundation’) (Greimas 1968 s.v.; see discussion below)

Provençal fo(u)ndegue, foundigo (Mistral s.vv.); fondicus (ML 1219 Marseilles, Bautier s.v.)

Genoese (ML) fondicus (1162, Caffarus Annals, du Cange s.v. funda); (1290 Black Sea, Balard 1973 #404); fundicus (1188 Mallorca, treaty between emir and Genoa, Torres Balbás 1946 ‘Las alhóndigas’ p. 455)

Italian fóndaco (c. 1310-40, Pegolotti 1936 p. 183)

Venetian fontego (1365, Capitolar della Tana, Jal s.v.; 1380 Zibaldone da Canal 1967 p. 45)

Greek φούνδαξ (1073, Michael Attaliates, Sophocles 1870 s.v.; φούνδακα 1143 Palermo, Caracausi 1983 s.v. fundacus)

Arabic فندق (funduq) ‘hotel, inn’ (Wehr 1976 s.v.) (1174-93, Syrian inscription, Torres Balbás 1946 ‘Las alhóndigas’ p. 447)

English fondaco (1599 as fondego OED s.v.)

FONDACO is a salient example of a Mediterranean word widespread through time and space. Its source is the Greek πανδοκεῖον (later πανδοχεῖον) ‘inn’, which was borrowed by Arabic as funduq (and by Aramaic as pwndq’, Rosén 1980 p. 241). The Arabic term spread throughout the basin, the Iberian variants in al- (the Arabic definite article) and the Sicilian Greek examples coming from areas under strong Arabic influence.

The type represented by French fonde and Spanish fonda poses a problem. The similarity to Latin funda suggests to Dauzat et al. (1971, s.v. fonde) a common Romance etymology, but a back-formation, as suggested above by Corominas, perhaps under the influence of a popular etymology from funda, is more likely, for two reasons: 1.) the meaning of the Latin term, ‘farm’, is difficult to extend to ‘merchants’ inn/warehouse’; 2.) the French term is first attested in Arabic-speaking lands, in the context of a treaty with the Venetians.

A related word, meaning ‘caretaker or host of a fondaco’, is probably a Medieval Latin coinage from *fundacus and the common suffix -arius (agent of use): Gk φουνδακάριος (1073, Michael Attaliates, Sophocles 1870 s.v.); Genoese (ML) fondegarius (1248, Byrne 1930 p. 78); It fondacario and variants, including fondachiere (1321 Pisa) and fonticaro (1363 Parenzo) (DMA s.vv.); Venetian fontegaro/fontegero (1365, Capitolar della Tana, Jal s.vv.).

FOOT (measure, especially in shipbuilding)

Port pé (Appleton Dictionary s.v.)

Sp pie (1233, Corominas Breve s.v.)

Cat peu (Gili 1967 s.v.)

Fr. pied (1080, Roland, Dauzat et al. 1971 s.v.)

Prov pièd (Mistral s.v.)

Ital piede (Hoare s.v.)

Gk podi (pl. podia) (XXc., AHH)

HIGH SEAS

Port alto mar (Jal 1831 s.v. haute mer; Leitão 1963 s.v.)

Sp alta mar (1587, García de Palacio f. 129 v.)

Cat alta mar (1460-90, Tirant lo blanc (1926/80) 2.170; A&M s.v.)

Fr haute mer (de K 1961 s.v.; 1622, Jal 1850 s.v. libeccio); haulte mer (1552, Rabelais Bk. 4, Ch. 10 (p. 588))

Ital alto mare (c. 1320, Dante Inferno 26.100)

Gk (arch.) álta máre (adv.) (XVIc., Delatte 1947 p. 30, line 10)

Gk pelagos (Kourbelis s.v.)

The source is Latin altum mare (OLD s.v.). In Greek also, the direction toward the open sea was considered `up' and toward shore `down' (cf. cataplus).

OAKUM (STUPPA) (originally, the coarse, short fibers separated from the long, fine fibers during the hackling of hemp, flax, etc.; later, the fibers obtained by picking apart old rope (cf. junk); used for caulking seams in planking)

Port estopa (Leitão 1963 s.v.)

Sp estopa (1330, Corominas Breve s.v.); "que los grumetes en ratos desoccupados le hagã estopa de cabos viejos [that the ship's boys, while idle, make oakum from old ropes]" (1587, García de Palacio f.177r.)

Cat estopa (XIc.; Ramon Berenguer II of Barcelona was called Cap d'Estopa `Towhead'; Chaytor 1933 p. 49); (XIIIc., Jaume I Crònica, A&M s.v.); (c. 1300, Consolat, chap. 20, Twiss 1874 (v.3) p. 94)

Fr. étoupe (Jal 1850 s.v.); estopes (XIIIc., Villehardouin, chap. 115)

Prov estoupo (Mistral s.v.); (ML) stupa (1239, Bautier s.v.)

Gen stopa (1441, Jal s.v. clavasio)

Ital stoppa (DMA s.v.); (1614 Pantero-Pantera, Jal s.v.)

Ven stopa (c. 1380, Zibaldone da Canal (1967) p. 15)

Croat stupa (Benson 1979 s.v.)

Gk stoupi (Kourbelis s.v.); stoupa (waste cotton, for wiping; 1987, AHH); stoupion (301, Edict of Diocletian 26.1a, LSJ s.v.)

Turk üstüpü (Akdikmen s.v.); stoba (1730, KKT #628)

MSArab ustubba (Wehr 1976 s.v.)

The Classical Greek styppeion occurs in Vc. B.C. (Herodotus, 8.52, LSJ s.v.) and later in many other variants. It is borrowed as Latin stuppa (Ic. B.C., Vergil Aeneid 5.681-2) and spreads throughout the Mediterranean. (It eventually wanders back to Greek, from Italian, stoupa which coexists with the more formal stoupi. For a verbal derivative, see caulk (STOPPAR).

OAKUM (misc.)

Port tomento (coarse oakum; Leitão 1974 s.v.)

Sp colla `la ultima estopa que se embute en cada costura [the last oakum packed into each seam]' (O'Sc 1831 s.v.)

QUINTAL (a weight measure of 100-120 lbs)

Port quintal (consisted, in 1612, of 4 arrobas (q.v.), each of 28-32 arrateis (cf. liter); Leitão 1974 s.v.)

Sp quintal (1220-50, Berceo), < Arab. qintar (Corominas Breve s.v.)

Cat quintal (1242), chintar (1150), quintar (of 4 arroves (see arroba); 1249, Leuda Coll.) (A&M s.v.); quintal (c. 1300, Consolat chap. 38, Twiss 1874 (v. 3) p.110)

Fr. quintal (XIIIc., Marco Polo, Dauzat et al. 1971 s.v.); cantaire, quintar (XIII-XIVc., Caracausi 1983 s.v. cantarium)

Prov quintau (Mistral); (ML) quintale (1232, Bautier s.v.); quintal (as a weight of rope for rigging; XIIIc., Informationes Massiliæ pro passagio transmarino, du Cange s.v. cordicca)

Prov (ML) quintarium (c. 1200 Marseilles), (ML) cantarium (1238) (Bautier s.vv.)

Gen (ML) cantarium (150 lbs; Byrne 1930 p. 29-30); (as a weight of anchors; 1269, Vidos 1939 p. 439)

Ital cántaro (XIIIc., Marco Polo); (ML) cantarium (as weight of cotton; 1157 Palermo) (Caracausi 1983 s.v. cantarium); (150 lbs; early XIVc., Pegolotti (1936) p. 32); < Arab. qintar (Devoto 1968 s.v.)

Ital centinaio (100 lbs; early XIVc., Pegolotti (1936) p. 32)

Ital quintale (1519, Consolato di mare, Prati 1970 s.v.). Despite Devoto's belief (1968 s.v.) that this is borrowed from Spanish, the French form is a more likely etymon.)

Croat vage kantar (a scale listed in shipboard inventory; XXc., AHH) (cf. Ger Waage `balance')

MGk kantari `quintal; steelyard' (Divry s.v.); `scale beam' (Kourbelis s.v.)

Byz Gk kendenaria (pl.) (298, Pap. Beatty Panop. 1.165, Gignac 1976 v.1 p. 82); kentenarion (c. 300, Edict. Dioclet. 18.5, LSJ); kentenaria (pl.) (326 Egypt, Wilcken and Mitteis 1912, v. 2, pt.2, p. 391)

Turk kantar (steelyard; weight measure = 44 oka (q.v.) (about 120 lbs); Caracausi 1983 s.v. cantarium)

MS Arab qintar (45-256 lbs; Wehr 1976 s.v.); (100-120 ratl (see liter); Caracausi 1983 s.v. cantarium)

Eng quintal, kintal, kentle (c. 1470, < OFr quintal; OED s.v.) (kentledge (1607) is pig-iron ballast; Onions 1966 s.v. quintal)

Eng kantar (Mediterranean weight measure; 1555; OED s.v.)

The usual etymology is LLat centenarium >Byz Gk > Arab > Romance. The sequence is probably correct, but the ultimate etymon may be LLat *centarium--analogous to Lat miliarium--which would explain better the Arabic form. (Lat cantharus, a type of drinking-cup, is an unlikely etymon.)

A nautical derivative of quintal with the suffix -ata is widespread in the western Mediterranean: Sp quintalada (sense now restricted to `primage'; Wiiliams), Cat quintalada (freight charged by weight was termed a quintalades; c. 1300, Consolat chap. 38, Twiss 1874 (v. 3) p. 110); quintarada (1524, Capmany Mem. v. 2 p. 345); Prov (ML) cantaratum (cargo freighted by weight; 1239, Bautier s.v. cantaratum); Gen (ML) cantarata (freight charged by weight was termed ad cantaratam; Byrne 1930 p. 29-30)

STOP! (command used in astronomical and gun sighting and in measuring speed with the log)

Port tope!, topo! (XIXc., Leitão 1974 s.v.)

Sp top! (O'Sc 1831 s.v.)

Fr top! (Jal 1850 s.v.); (1872, Dauzat et al. 1971 s.v.); stop! (1792, Dauzat et al. 1971 s.v.)

Prov topo! (not specif. naut.; Mistral s.v.)

Ital top! (1850, Jal 1850 s.v.; 1831, O'Sc 1831s.v.); stop! (DMA s.v.)

Turk stop! (not specif. naut.; Akdikmen s.v.)

A widespread term originating in English.

STOPPER (BARBARESCA) (a short length of rope used temporarily to secure another, especially an anchor cable)

Fr barbarasse `boza de gancho [hook-stopper]' (O'Sc 1831 s.v.); (Jal 1850 s.v.)

Prov barbarasso (Mistral s.v.)

Ital bozza alla barbaresca `ring stopper' (KKT #70)

Gk mpamparessa (Jal 1831 s.v.; Kourbelis s.v.)

Turk barbariska `stopper; rolling hitch' (KKT #70)

Italian is the source language.

STOPPER (BOZZA)

Port boça (1850, Jal 1850 s.v.)

Lascar bossa (Jal 1850 s.v. bosse)

Sp boza (1992, AHH); (1538, A. Chavez, Gili Gaya s.v.); (1587, García de Palacio f.123r.)

Cat bossa (A&M s.v.)

Fr bosse (Jal 1850 s.v.; de K 1961 s.v.)

Prov bosso, bouesso (Mistral s.v.)

Ital bozza (DMA s.v.); (1614, Pantero-Pantera, Jal s.v.); (northern Ital form of boccia < VLat *boccus `round object'; Devoto 1968 s.v.)

Gk mpotsos (Jal 1850 s.v.; Kourbelis s.v.)

Turk bosa (KKT #116)

Arab (NAfr) bossa, possa (Jal 1850 s.vv.)

The etymology suggested by Devoto (above) and by KKT (#116; < *bottia `swelling') is reasonable: the wrapping of a stopper around a cable creates a swelling. The term probably spreads from Italy.

STOPPER (STOPPER)

Sp estopor `anchor-chain stopper' (1992, AHH); (1842; < Fr stoppeur; Corominas Breve s.v.)

Fr stoppeur (de K 1961); cf. stopper `faire arrêter [to stop]' (1847, Annales Maritimes, Dauzat et al. 1971 s.v.)

Ital stopper (used by some as equivalent to arrestatoio; DMAs.v.)

Another XIXc. borrowing from English.

The following are terms for several types of timber comprising the "skeleton" of the hull:

CRUTCH (oblique or horizontal knee used to reinforce the stern; see breasthook)

Sp. busarda: "Algunos buques han llevado á popa debajo del sollado dos busardas próximamente á escuadra con los costados [some ships carried at the stern below the orlop, two crutches approximately square with the sides]" (O'Sc 1831 s.v. & as gloss to crutch)

Sp (arch.) forcaz: "Encima de las puntas de los piques y astas del rasel...e ha de plantar un forcaz de buen grueso y ancho, que endiente y ciña todas las maderas de los piques para proa, de todo el largo posible [over the scarfs of the rising floors and their futtocks...one must install a crutch of adequate thickness and breadth which is mortised tightly to the floor-timbers and extends as far as possible forward]" (1611 Tomé Cano, Fernandez Duro 1881 v. 6 p. 99)

Fr guirlande arrière (de K 1961 s.v.)

Ital ghirlanda/gola di poppa (Paasch 1908 p. 19)

Ital zogia (O'Sc 1831 s.v. busarda)

Ven zòie `ghirlande (di poppa o di prua) [crutch or breasthook]' (KKK p. 342); cf. Ven zoia `guirlande, herpe de poulaine [head-rail]' (1769 Saverien, Jal 1850 s.v.)

Gk fourniste, astrave (Kourbelis s.vv.)

FLOOR (MATERIA `timber'; see board) (the lowest timber of a frame, centered on the keel)

Sp cf. madero [frame-timber] (O'Sc 1831 s.v.)

Cat madís (pl. madissos) (XIII c. Cron. of Jaume I as artillery term; A&M s.v.), cf. madero `frame'; < Sp, (A&M s.v.)

Prov amadié (Mistral s.v.); madier (Deanovic 1937 p. 272; Jal s.v. mader)

Fr madier (1660 (Paris), Anderson 1925 p.140)

OFr "de bois pour faire madrets et estaminares [wood for making floors and futtocks]" (1382-84 Rouen, Bréard 1893 p. 50)

Gen maiè, maiö (DMA s.v.); majoe (Jal 1850 s.v. varangue)

Ital madiere (DMA s.v.); (.<.Fr mad(r)ier < OProv madier < VLat *materium [timber]; Prati 1970 s.v.); (1777, Alberti, Hope 1971 p. 400); matera (1614 Pantero, Jal 1850 s.v.; Hoare s.v.)

Ital (arch.) "la Matèra...s'affeta, & inchioda sopra la carena [the floor is fastened and nailed atop the keel]" (1602 Crescentio p. 14)

Ital (Cors.) maiera (Jal 1850 s.v. couple)

Ven magero, maggiero (DMA s.v.); matere, maiere (1813 Stratico, DMA s.v.); majeri (1432 Querini), mader (DMA s.vv.)

FLOOR (PLAN `flat') (see bottom/ship's)

cf. Port plano (one of the frames making up each side-by-side pair; see frame) (Leitão 1974 s.v.)

Sp plan (1587, García de Palacio f.152r; 1611 Tomé Cano, Fernandez Duro 1881 v. 6, p. 71; 1756, de la Victoria, Phillips 1990 p. 17). This is a clear borrowing, presumably from an Ital form: the normal reflex of Lat planus in Sp is llano.

Prov (p)lano (Mistral s.v.)

Ven piana (DMA s.v. madiere); `varangue plat' (Jal 1850 s.v.)

Croat piana (KKK p. 337)

FLOOR (WRANG `curved')

Sp varenga (1696 Vocab. Marit. de Sevilla , Corominas & Pascual 1984 s.v.); orenga (= estamenara [futtock], 1611 Tomé Cano, Fernandez Duro 1881 v.6 p.71)

Cat varenga, < Sp, A&M s.v.)

Prov vareng(l)o (= amadié, plano) (Mistral s.v.)

Fr varangue (1382-84 Rouen, Bréard 1893 p. 73; Jal 1850 s.v.; de K 1961 s.v.)

Ital (Cors.) veringola (Jal s.v. varangue)

Ven veríngola (DMA s.v.)

Germ Bodenwrange (= Bauchstück) (de K 1961 s.v.)

Eng rung `timbers which doe give the flower of ye Shippe, and theise are bolted to the Keele' (1625 Nomenclator Navalis , OED s.v.)

WRANG is of Germanic origin; cf. OScand rong, dial. Sw vrang, dial Norw vraang, OEng wrang(a) [hold], MLGerm wrange [various curved pieces used in shipbuilding] (Corominas & Pascual 1984 s.v. varenga); cf. Germ *wrang- `curved, crooked' (AHD3) which, with suffix -el, is source of the Ven form (KKT #708) and Prov varenglo. In Sp, Cat, Fr and Prov, this type constitutes the modern form of `floor'.

FLOOR (misc.)

Port caverna (Leitão 1963 s.v.); cf. Lat cavernae navium `ships' holds' (Cicero de Oratione 3.180; Lucretius 2.553, OLD s.v.)

Port (arch.) madeira da conta / do conto (the floors between the mestra and the almogamas) (XVIc, M.F., Leitão 1974 s.v.) (cf. member (cont )).

Fr râble `el madero ...que hace de varenga en los barcos chatos [the timber that forms the floor in flat-bottomed boats]' (O'Sc 1831 s.v.); (1690 Furetière, mar.; extension of the meaning `fire-rake, poker' (XIII c. as roable), Dauzat et al. 1971 s.v.)

Gk koutsa `crotch, floors, transom' (Kourbelis s.v.)

Arab (Tun) qarbûs, ? < Ital corba (Gateau 1946 p.167)

FLOOR/HALF (timber equivalent to the first futtock, in the new framing system introduced by Seppings about 1820 and illustrated by Clowes 1932 p. 97)

Sp. media varenga (O'Sc s.v. half timber)

Fr demie / fausse varengue (de K 1961 s.v.)

FLOOR/RISING (These are the floors fore and aft of the flat floors, the angle of whose arms with the horizontal grows steeper as stem and stern are approached. Prov had a series of terms from flat floor to sharpest Y-shape: madier-senglon-mautrobe-fourcat (Barras de la Penne, Jal s.v. mautrobe). Note that breasthooks and crutches are installed at stem and stern in a manner analogous to the way in which the rising floors are mounted on the keel and/or deadwood; there is some overlap in terminology.)

Sp varenga levantada / pique (includes piques forward and horquetas aft; O'Sc 1831 s.v.)

Sp pique (O'Sc 1831 s.v.); "que las estamenaras ó virotes crucen todo lo más que pudiesen con los piques [that the futtocks overlap as much as possible with the rising floors]" (1611 Tomé Cano, Fernandez Duro 1881 v.6 p.72)

Fr varangue acculée (Jal 1831 s.v.; de K 1961 s.v.)

FLOOR/RISING (CURV CAPUCH `Capuchin monk's cowl')

Sp curva capuchina (O'Sc 1831 s.v.; more commonly used of a part of the cutwater)

Cat corbató caputxi (A&M s.v.)

FLOOR/RISING (FORC `fork')

Sp horquilla, horqueta (aft; O'Sc 1831 s.v.); forcaz, horcaz, horcate (fore and aft; O'Sc 1831 s.v.); forcaz (1587, García de Palacio f.90r.)

Fr fourcat (O'Sc 1831 s.v.; Jal 1850 s.v.; Paasch 1908 s.v.); Fr fourg (1643 Fournier), fourcat (1691) (Jal s.vv.)

Prov fourcat (Mistral s.v.)

Ital "L'altre Matère che seguitano delle Matère del dente fino alle ruote di Poppa, & Proda, che sono i Forcazzi [the other floors that extend from the first rising floors to the sternpost and the stem are the forcazzi]" (1602 Crescentio p. 18); forcazzi, forcacci, forcadi, forcati (O'Sc 1831 s.vv); (cf. forcaccio `crotch' (Hoare s.v.); forcamello `scalmotto [top-timber]' (DMA s.v.); forcamo `genou [first futtock]', forcamello `allonge [futtock]' (1813 Stratico, Jal s.vv.))

OVen forcami (pl.) (1593, Lane 1934/1966 p.171)

Arab (Tun) fórka (pl. frók) `varangue de la extremité [end floor]' (Gateau 1946 p. 167)

These forms are probably all of Italian origin. (The Spanish forms in h- might appear to be older and indigenous but are probably calques on the Ital.)

FLOOR/RISING (SENGLON )

Sp singlón (currently used only in Andalusia for `first futtock'; O'Sc s.v.); OSp cinglon "à la parte de la proa, en forma de plan, que por dõde toca la quilla, va haziendo delgados hazia la roda [near the stem, shaped like a floor which, where it touches the keel, shapes the entrance]" (1587 García de Palacio f.138v.)

Cat singló, < Sp (A&M s.v.)

OProv singlon `fourcat'; senglon (flattest of the rising floors, just fore and aft of the flat floors) (Barras de la Penne) (Jal 1850 s.v.)

Fr sanglon (= fourcat; O'Sc 1831 s.v.); OFr cenglon (c. 1550 Stolonomie ), OFr senglon (1622, Hobier), singlon (Traité de la construction des galères ) (Jal 1850 s.vv.)

SENGLON originates in France, presumably a suffixed form of sangle `saddle-girth'; it may have been thought to resemble a girth under the belly of the ship.

FLOOR/RISING (misc.)

Fr croche: "j quarteron [a weight measure] de varengues [floors] et de croches" (1382-84 Rouen, Bréard 1893 p. 73) (This could be either `rising floor' or `crutch'.)

Prov mautrobe (Barras de la Penne; Jal s.v. suggests < mal trobar `difficult to find' as such compass timbers no doubt always were)

Ital "matera del dente di Poppa, & Proda...iui comincia a stringersi il piano della Galea [at the first rising floor, the galley's bottom begins to narrow]" (Crescentio 1602 p. 23)

FRAME (The set of heavy timbers forming each rib. The frame evolved through the following stages: 1.) abutted and/or alternating floors and futtocks, sometimes with half-frames interspersed (see Steffy 1982 p 74) 2.) abutted floors and futtocks reinforced, where necessary, by other futtocks bolted alongside (e.g. genou, cappezella, apostura) 3.) completely paired frames (e.g. couple))

FRAME (COPULA `pair')

Fr couple (Jal 1850 s.v.; de K 1961 s.v.)

Ital coppia (Jal 1850 s.v. couple); (obsol., =quinto, i.e. the frame consisted of ribs paired across the keel; DMA s.v.)

FRAME (COSTA `rib')

Port costela (Leitão 1963 s.v.) Sp costilla (O'Sc 1831 s.v.)

Fr côte (O'Sc 1831 s.v.) Prov costo `varangue [floor]' (Mistral s.v.)

Ital costa `ciascuna delle simmetriche metà di ogni quinto [each of the symmetrical halves of every frame]' (DMA s.v.); costola (O'Sc 1831 s.v. costilla); costela (1607 Crescentio as costelame (frame timbers), Jal s.v. couple)

Gk pleuron `rib' (Kourbelis s.v.)

Lat costa (Pliny Nat. 13.63, OLD s.v.)

FRAME (CURV )

Prov courbo `côte [rib]' (Mistral s.v.)

Ital curva `curva [knee]; cuaderna [frame]' (O'Sc s.v.); corba, corbame [ship's timbers] (DMA s.vv.)

Ven corba, corbame (KKK p. 168); chorba (c. 1445, Anderson 1925 p. 138)

Croat kôrba, korbam (Skok 1939 p.462)

Arab (Tun) cf. qarbûs `floor' (Gateau 1946 p. 147)

FRAME (MEMBRUM `limb')

Sp miembro (O'Sc 1831 s.v.) Cat membre (Mistral s.v.) Prov membre (Mistral s.v.)

Fr membre (Jal 1850 s.v.; O'Sc 1831 s.v.) Ital membri (pl.) (O'Sc 1831 s.v.)

These forms are mostly bookish.

FRAME (POSTA `post')

Sp posta (master frame; O'Sc 1831 s.v.)

Gk posta (Kourbelis s.v.); `revers [top-timber]' (Jal 1850 s.v.); postes `maître couple [master frame]' (Jal 1850 s.v.)

Turk posta (Redhouse s.v.)

Lat postis `door-post, jamb' (Plautus, OLD s.v.)

FRAME (QUATERNA `(square) frame')

Port quaderna (= Sp plan `floor'; 1611 Tomé Cano, Jal s.v. plan)

Sp cuaderna (O'Sc 1831 s.v.); quaderna, es vna de las costillas del nauio, compuestas de vn plan, y dos estamenaras [one of the ribs of the ship, composed of a floor and two futtocks]" (1587, García de Palacio f.152r.)

Cat quaderna (A&M s.v.)

Gen querne `coste della nave [ribs of the ship]' (DMA s.v.)

Ital quaderna (Naples, Jal 1850 s.v. couple; DMA s.v.)

FRAME (misc.)

Port baliza (Leitão 1963 s.v.)

Port (arch.) apostura (comprising braços and hastas) (Leitão 1963 s.v.)

Port cf. embaraçar `ligar os dois planos duma baliza de maneira que as ligaçoes das diferentes peças que os compõem não coincidam [to fasten together the paired pieces of a frame so that their joints are staggered]' (the operation and the resulting overlap are both embaraçamento) (Leitão 1963 s.v.)

Sp varenga (often used for `frame' rather than `floor') (O'Sc 1831 s.v. cuaderna); madero (de cuenta) [frame timber] (O'Sc 1831 s.v.; 1587, García de Palacio f.92r.)

Cat madero (de l'orla a la carena [from the gunwale to the keel]; Castilianism; A&M s.v.)

Prov plecho (= membre; Mistral s.v.)

FRAME/BALANCE (O'Sc s.v. redel) (the forward-most and aftermost frames of the full-breadth portion of the hull)

Port (arch.) almogamas `as últimas balizas com chão de caverna que limitavam o fundo do navio a vante e a ré [the frames which are located at the ends of the flat of floor fore and aft]' (Leitão 1963 s.v.)

Sp redel; cuaderna de cuadratura [squaring]/ del lof [loof]] de popa / de proa `se sitúan en las cuadras, y desde las cuales empiezan los delgados [they are situated in the quarters, and beyond them the entrance begins forward and the run aft]' (O'Sc 1831 s.vv.); redel (1696 Vocab. Marit. de Sevilla; prob < colloq. Cat rader, common metathesis of darrer `última'; Corominas & Pascual 1984 s.v.)

OSp almogama; of (probably results from the interpretation of el lof as el of); rael (O'Sc 1831 s.v.)

Fr couple de balancement (O'Sc 1831 s.v. redél; Jal 1850 s.v. costa); cf. balancement `squaring of frames' (de K 1961 s.v.)

Ital quartiere (O'Sc 1831 s.v. redél); costa di bilanciamento `couple de balancement' (Jal 1850 s.v.)

Ven capo di sesto (fore and aft; tentative identification; 1593, Lane 1934/1966 p.171)

Ven chodera chorba (c. 1410, Jal 1840 p.6); qudiera chorba (lit. `tail-frame'; c. 1445, galley, Anderson 1925 p. 140)

FRAME/CANT (frames fore and aft, not set at a right angle to the keel; introduced in English ships c. 1715 (Goodwin 1987 p. 22); see timber/half; hawse-piece)

Port balizas reviradas (Leitão 1963 s.vv.)

Sp cuaderna revirada / de reviro / inclinada / levantada; asta / henchidura / lleno de cabezas; cuadernas escantillades (gloss on cant frames); astas reviradas (gloss on cant timbers) (O'Sc 1831 s.vv.); "Los palmejares irán corriendo por las junturas de los henchimientos de cabezas con los virotes hasta llegar á proa y popa bien endentados y clavados [the thick stuff/stringers run along the joints between the ? cant-floors and their futtocks, right to stem and stern, well mortised and spiked]" (1611 Tomé Cano, Fernandez Duro 1881 v.6 p.73)

Cat quaderna revirada (A&M s.v.)

Fr couples dévoyés (Jal 1850 s.v.; Paasch 1908 p.23; de K 1961 s.v.)

Ital quinto deviato / obliquo (DMA s.v.); costa travirata (Jal 1850 s.v. costa); costa deviata (Paasch 1908 p.23)

Ven menale , < stamenale (Jal 1850 s.v.)

FRAME/FILLING (these are the frames intermediate to the master frames; see chock, filling)

Port balizas de enchimento (Leitão 1963 s.v.)

Sp cuaderna de henchimiento / intermedia; henchimiento, henchidura (O'Sc 1831 s.vv.)

Cat quadernes d'omplir / de remitjos `les que a un doble fons cel[[ring]]lular no van consolidades amb varengues de ferro [frames in a cellular double-bottom which are not connected with steel floors]' (A&M s.v.)

Fr couple de remplissage (Jal 1850 s.v. costa; de K 1961 s.v. (de K's definition is of fillings between frames, rather than intermediate frames)); boiser `colocar las cuadernas intermedias ó rellenar los vacíos entre las de armar [to position the intermediate frames, to fill the gaps between the master-frames]' (O'Sc 1831 s.v.)

Ital costa di riempimiento `couple de remplissage' (Jal 1850 s.v.); riempimenti `filling timbers' (Hoare s.v.)

Ven zápoli (DMA s.v. zappoli)

Croat capuli (KKK p. 342)

FRAME/HALF (floorless frames fore and aft, with futtocks seated directly on the keel; see Lavery 1985 fig. B16/2; see futtock (misc.))

OPort ásteas `as últimas balizas da popa e proa [the last frames toward stern and stem]' (1788, Leitão 1963 s.v.)

Sp asta revirada ("astas...cuando...no llevan varenga [called astas when they do not have floors]"; O'Sc 1831 s.v.); asta `maderos de quenta, que van haziendo faccion en la popa, y tiene el pie largo hazia la quilla, y con ella se hazen los delgados de popa [frame timbers which form the run of the stern and have their long arms toward the keel]" (1587 García de Palacio f.131v.)

Fr demi-membrure (de K 1961 s.v. half timber)

Germ Sitzer (de K 1961 s.v.)

FRAME/MASTER (These frames were set up at intervals to give form to the hull; between them are the filling frames.)

Port balizas de armar (Leitão 1963 s.v.)

Sp cuaderna de armar/de armazon; posta; armadera (O'Sc 1831 s.v.)

Ital quinto `per disegnare il garbo generale...dell'ossatura. Per lo più la chiglia si divide in cinque parti uguali, sulle quali si alzano i quinti. Ciascun quinto comprende la coppia delle due coste intestate sulla chiglia [to design the overall shape...of the framework. Generally, the keel is divided into five equal parts, at which points the master-frames are erected. Each master-frame comprises the pair of ribs seated on the keel]' (= obsol. coppia, corba) (DMA s.v.)

FRAME/MIDSHIP

Port baliza mestra `a que fica na região da casa mestra [a frame located near the point of the largest cross-section of the hull]' (often four in number; Leitão 1963 s.v.)

Sp cuaderna maestra (also cuaderna principal, O'Sc 1831 s.v.; 1645, Fernandez Duro 1881 v.6 p.226)

Cat quaderna mestra (A&M s.vv. estella & quaderna)

Fr maître couple (includes maîtresse varangue and maître bau; Jal s.v.); premier / maître gabari (1780 Falconer s.v.)

Ital ordinata centrale / maestra (Paasch 1908 p. 80) (I infer costa maestra)

Gk mastores (Kourbelis s.v.); postes (Jal 1850 s.v. maître couple)

FRAME/SQUARE (one of the frames erected perpendicular to the keel in the midbody of the hull)

Port baliza direita (Leitão 1963 s.v.)

Sp cuaderna llana / á escuadra (O'Sc 1831 s.v.)

Cat quaderna plana / a esquadra (A&M s.v.)

Fr couple droit (de K 1961 s.v.)

Gk nomeus mesos (formal, Kourbelis; I infer popular mese posta)

FUTTOCK (ALLONG `lengthening piece') (frame-timbers extending from the upper end of the floor, or starting at each side of the keel)

Fr allonge (de K 1961 s.v. futtock); (1538, Jal Noveau Glossaire s.v.)

Prov allondjié (Jal 1850 s.v. allonge); alo(u)ng `allonge [lengthener]' (not specif. naut., Mistral s.v.)

Ital allungatore `gli scalmi e gli scalmotti sono gli allungatori dei madieri e degli staminali [the futtocks and top-timbers are the extensions of the floors and first futtocks]' (DMA s.v.)

Ven slongatori (1813 Statico, DMA s.v.)

MEng "reuesynges et allangosen" (1294-95, Anderson 1928 p.237)

FUTTOCK (APOSTUR `piece placed next to another')

Port cf. apostura (top-timber) (Leitão 1963 s.v.)

Sp apostura (according to some sources) "la segunda ligazon que se pone en la cuaderna despues del genol, y sentada ó unida á tope sobre la cabeza de la varenga. Llámase tambien primera ligazon [the second timber which is placed in the frame after the installation of the first futtock and is butted against the floor-head]" (also `barraganete') (O'Sc 1831 s.v.); (primera & segunda aposturas are first & third futtocks, and tercera apostura is fourth futtock) (1756, de la Victoria, Phillips 1990 p. 17); `añadidura o complemento [added piece or complement]' (DEI s.v.)

Fr apotureau (timber-heads of hawse-pieces; Jal 1850 s.v.)

FUTTOCK (BRAC `arm')

Port braço (first & third extend the caverna [floor], second & fourth the contracaverna [first futtock]) (Leitão 1963 s.v.); (Jal 1850 s.v. allonge)

Ital brazzo (Dabovich 933, KKK 1953-54 p.166); brazzo di regia `genol ó ligazon de cuaderna en la cinta principal [futtock at the main wale]' (O'Sc 1831 s.v.)

Ven braccio (Jal 1850 s.v.)

Croat brace `topgallant bulwark stanchions' (Skok 135, KKK 1953-54 p. 166)

FUTTOCK (SKALM )

OSp escalamote `barraganete [top-timber]' (O'Sc 1831 s.v.)

OFr scalme (1643, Fournier, Jal s.v.)

Prov escaoumo (Jal 1850 s.v.)

Ital scalmo (DMA s.v.)

Ital scarmoti, scarmi `escalamotes, barraganetes, reveses [various synonyms for `top-timber]' (O'Sc 1831 s.v.)

Gk skarmos(Kourbelis s.v.). The meaning `futtock' developed from thole-pin in Byz Gk; cf. the IX c. Lexicon of Photius: "styloi: skalmoi ploion [styloi: futtocks of ships]" (KKT #843)

Tu iskarmoz (upper futtocks) (KKT #843); `rib' (Redhouse s.v.)

Arab (Tun) skarmo (Gateau 1946 p.167)

MEng scalma (1294-95) (from context, probably `futtock, not `thole') (Anderson 1928 p. 236)

SKALM denoted in Gk tholepin, then in Byz Gk `futtock', from which we might infer that the oars were originally strapped to the timberheads.

FUTTOCK (STAMIN `upright piece')

Port estameiras `nos barcos rabelos, são quatro balizas mais reforçadas, com entalhes para receberem as dragas. São as duas primeiras, a contar da proa, umo do meio e a penúltima da popa [in rabelos, these are four more strongly reinforced frames, notched to receive the thick stuff. They comprise the two forward-most frames, one amidships, and the next to the aftermost]' (Leitão 1974 s.v.)

OSp estamenara `junto con el plan, haze una quaderna [together with the floor, makes a frame]' (1587 García de Palacio f.143r); "que las estamenaras ó virotes crucen todo lo más que pudiesen con los piques [that the futtocks overlap as much as possible with the rising floors]" (1611 Tomé Cano, Fernandez Duro 1881 v.6 p.72); " estamenaras ó orengas" (ibid. p.71); estemenara `los maderos principales...hasta la cinta principal; las piezas de ligazon que se van agregando á la varenga para formar la cuaderna [the principal timbers up to the main wale; the futtocks which are added to the floor to make up the frame]' (O'Sc 1831 s.v.)

Cat estamenera [first futtock] (A&M s.v.); estamanare `varangue [floor]' (Jal 1850 s.v.)

Prov estamenai `genou [first futtock]' (Mistral s.v.) Prov (Nice) stamanaire (DMA s.v.)

OFr estaminaire (1382-84 Rouen, Bréard 1893 p.50); "Faut aussi cent quarante-quatre pièces tant estamenaires que cenglons [also missing are 144 pieces, including futtocks as well as rising-floors]" (c. 1550 Stolonomie , Jal s.v.); "l'une qui s'appelle madier, est clouée, & à chacun de ses bouts se ionct une estemenaire, lesquelles s'elargissons esgalement sans recourber [the one, which is called the floor and is spiked [to the keel], and has, joined to each of its ends, a futtock which are extended equally [on each side of the keel] without curving]" [this is the present-day second futtock] (1622 Hobier, Vidos 1939 p. 379-80)

Gen stamanea `quinto [frame]' (DMA s.v.) OGen stamanera (XIII c., Vidos 1939 p.379-82)

Ital staminale "oggi questo termine è poco usato e soltanto per indicare gli scalmi più bassi [today this term is little used and only to refer to the lowest futtocks]" (DMA s.v.); "Gli Stamenali sono quelle parti, che si accrescono & incastrano nelle cime di detta Matèra per difetto [the stamenali are those pieces which are added to and scarfed to the heads of the floors]" (1602 Crescentio p. 15)

Ital staminara `curva [knee], estemenera [futtock]' (O'Sc 1831 s.v.); (ML) stamenaria (of which a galea had fifty, 1275 (Naples), Vidos 1939 p.379-82)

Ven staminara (DMA s.v.)

Gk staminaria (X c. Naumachica 2.10, Dain 1943 p.65); "Nel sec. XII Eustazio, nel suo Commento ad Omero, Odys., 5, 252, ci fa sapere che fino all'età sua in Licia gli stamines furono chiamati staminaria [In the XII c., Eustasius, in his commentary on Homer, says that in his day in Lycia, the stami[[section]]new were called staminacentsria]" (Vidos 1939 p.379-82); staminaria `timber heads' (Kourbelis s.v.)

Lat statumen (pl. statumina) (Caesar Bell. Civ. 1.54, Casson 1971/86 p.221). This might be a calque on the Gk term.

STAMIN, though now mostly obsolete, has a long history of use in the sense `futtock', occurring first in Homer and remaining in use continously (later in the form with the common Latin suffix -aria) for 2500 years. The root sta- `stand' presumably refers to the position of the futtock installed up the side of the ship, in contrast with the floor. In Mod Gk, the referent has reached the highest possible point in the framing, the timber-head. And ironically, the term skarmos, which has always been applied to tholepins, is now also used for `futtock'.

FUTTOCK (misc.)

Sp asta "[a crutch is placed] encima de las puntas de los piques y astas de rasel [on top of the ends--i.e. across the joints--of the rising floors and their futtocks]" (1611 Tomé Cano, Fernandez Duro 1881 v.6 p. 99); "Los planes, estamenares, singlones, piques, barraganetes, hastas..." (1614-22Jal s.v. galleon); (in drawing of de la Victoria, 1756, the asta appears to be the lowest piece of an after frame, to which is attached--with an almost horizontal scarf--the pique; Phillips 1990 p. 17); astas de popa/proa `las piezas de ligazon unidas con los singlones que vienen de los piques de proa y popa [the frame timbers joined to the rising floors near stem and stern]' (O'Sc 1831 s.v.); see frame/half.

Sp ligazón (term includes de revés, astas, barraganetes, estemenaras, orengas, posturas, urniciones, aposturages) (O'Sc 1831 s.v.)

Gen cappüssèlle (pl.; DMA s.v.)

Ital capezzella `pezzi...squadrati e curvi, che s'inchiodano lungo ogni costa per rinforzare le giunture tra le sui parti (madiere, staminale e scalmi) [curved pieces of square cross-section which are fastened along each frame to reinforce the joints among its parts, i.e.floor and futtocks]' (DMA s.v.)

Ital forcamo `genou [first futtock]'; forcamello `allonge [futtock]' (1813 Stratico, Jal s.v.); forcameli `genoles [first futtocks]' (O'Sc 1831 s.v.)

OItal forcamello `scalmotto [top-timber]' (DMA s.v.)

Ven forcamelo `scalmotto [top-timber]' (DMA s.v.)

Gk straboxylon `frame timber' (lit. `crooked wood'; in small vessels) (Kourbelis s.v.); (Jal 1850 s.v. allonge)

Eng futtock (1611, OED s.v.) (The etymology usually given is foot-hook. A more likely etymon is a Low Germ diminutive of the type voeteke meaning something like `small foot'; (cf. Eng diminutives in -ock, such as hillock, i.) The futtock might thus have been considered a sort of footing.);

MEng votekes, futtekes, foutekes, fothok, fotinges (1294-95, Anderson 1928 p. 228-30)

FUTTOCK/FIRST (crosses keel & is bolted and/or dovetailed to floor. In the new framing system--c. 1820; see floor/half--the first futtock abuts the head of the cross-piece.)

Port contracaverna (Leitão 1963 s.v.)

Sp genol `las primeras piezas de ligazon que arriman ó se amadrinan de costado á las varengas...cuyos pies se unen de frente en el medio del ancho de la quilla...En el lenguaje comun de la marinería, se equivocan ó tienen por equivalentes con la voz de genol las de estemenara, primeras, segundas &c ligazones[though not by builders] [the first futtocks which are fastened to the side of the floor, whose feet meet in the middle of the width of the keel...In common sailor language, the term genol is often confused with estemenera et al.]' (O'Sc 1831 s.v.); "los durmientes [of the baos vacíos] han de clavar en las cabezas de los piés del genol ó estamanaras [the shelves must be spiked to the upper ends of the first or other futtocks]" (1645 Fernandez Duro 1881 v.6 p.226-7); < Cat genoll (Corominas & Pascual 1984 s.v.)

Sp singlón (so used--rather than as floor/rising--in some areas of Andalusia; O'Sc 1831 s.v.)

OSp primera apostura (1756, de la Victoria, Phillips 1990 p. 17)

Fr genou (Jal 1850 s.v. allonge); genou, première allonge, demie varangue (de K 1961 s.v.); "j quarteron [weight measure] de genous" (1382-84 Rouen, Bréard 1893 p. 73)

Ital ginocchio; mezzo madiere (Paasch 1908 p. 103)

Gk mandalion `ground futtock' (Kourbelis s.v.); cf. mandalos `bolt, bar, latch'

Germ Sitzer (de K 1961 s.v.)

FUTTOCK/SECOND (abuts head of floor; 1711, Abell 1948 p. 75)

Sp primera ligazón (O'Sc 1831 s.v.)

OFr "l'une qui s'appelle madier, est clouée, & à chacun de ses bouts se ionct une estemenaire, lesquelles s'elargissons esgalement sans recourber [the one which is called the floor and is spiked [to the keel], and has , joined to both ends, futtocks which extend equally [on each side of the keel] without curving]" (1622 Hobier, Vidos 1939 p.379-80)

MEMBER/STRUCTURAL (CONT ` account') (for a less likely etymology cf. pole (cont ))

Port (arch.) madeira da conta / do conto (the floors between the mestra and the almogamas) (XVIc., M.F., Leitão 1974 s.v.)

Sp madero de cuenta, ligazones de cuenta (O'Sc 1831 s.v.); maderos de cuenta (opp. "maderos que no son de cuenta") (1611 Tomé Cano, Fernandex Duro 1881 v.6 p.72)

MEMBER/STRUCTURAL (LIG `join')

Port liame (generic term comprising keel, keelson, frames, stem, sternpost, beams, etc.) (XVIc., P.F.O. L.F.N. 208); liação (same sense); liança (same sense); liar (connect securely the parts of a vessel) (Leitão 1974 s.v.)

Sp ligazón `denominacion general de toda pieza de construccion [general term for construction timbers]' (also used more specifically for `futtocks' (O'Sc s.v.); ligazones de cuenta, maderos de ligazon (ibid. s.v. madero); ligar (connect securely the parts of a vessel) (ibid. s.v. ligar)

Fr liaison `ligazon'; liens `piezas de madera que sirven de apoyo é impiden la desunion de otras apuntalando y endentando sobre ellas [timbers which support and prevent the disconnection of other pieces, shoring them up and notched into them]' (O'Sc s.v.); lier (connect securely parts of a vessel) (Jal s.v.)

Ital legamenti `all the pieces in a ship which strengthen its construction' (Hoare s.v.)

TOP-TIMBER (the uppermost timber of a frame; see timber-head)

Port apostura (Leitão 1963); aposturagem de recolher (inward-curved upper portion of top-timbers; XVI c., Livro das Traças da Carpinteria , Leitão 1974 s.v.))

OPort hasta (XVI c., Leitão 1963 s.v.)

Sp barraganete (as baraganete, 1579, Pontillo 1975 #126); "el primer madero de quenta...es formado de vn palo que llaman estamanara, y dos barraganetes, à manera de vn medio circulo [the first frame consists of a timber called futtock and two top-timbers/upper futtocks set up like a half-circle]" (1587 García de Palacio f.92v); "los barraganetes...han de ir cruzando la mitad de su altura con las estamenaras [the futtocks must overlap half the length of the top-timbers]" (1611, Tomé Cano, Fernandez Duro 1881 v. 6 p. 74); `la última pieza alta de ligazon que compone la cuaderna (= asta, apostura(ge), escalamote, talicon) [the uppermost futtock of the frame]; entre constructores...un reves corto que se pone para completar la cuaderna hasta la regala [as the term is used by builders, a short, double-curved top-timber used to complete the frame up to the rail]' (O'Sc 1831 s.v.); 1609, < barragán `mozo' (Corom. Breve s.v.)

Sp revés `la pieza extrema de toda cuaderna, que tiene vuelta cóncava y convexa [the end-piece of each frame, which has both a concave and a convex curvature]' (O'Sc 1831 s.v., who also gives the following glosses: top timbers `terceras ligazones [third futtocks] y reveses'; long top timbers `reveses, barraganetes [top-timbers], astas [half-timber; futtock of a rising floor]'; short top timbers `terceras ó cuartas ligazones'); ligazón de revés (Paasch 1908 p. 39)

Cat barraganet < Sp (A&M s.v.)

Prov escaoumo `allonge [futtock]' (Jal 1850 s.v.)

Fr allonge de pavois (cf. allonge de revers, jambette de pavois `bulwark stanchion') (de K 1961 s.v. top timber)

Fr cf. apotureau `manigueton [timber-head], barraganete [top-timber]' (O'Sc 1831 s.v.)

Ital scalmotti (DMA s.v.); scarmotto (1602 Crescentio p. 31); scarmotti, scarmi, maimoni (O'Sc 1831 s.v.)

Gk divolto (Kourbelis s.v.) (probably < Ital di- + volto `twice-curved')

Turk voltali `top timbers; upper foot-hook timbers' (KKT #716)

MEng reuesynges (listed with allangosen [? futtocks]; 1294-95, Anderson 1929 p. 237)