Kitsune

Overview: What are Kitsune?

Each culture across the globe has its own set of unique tales that present a variety of heroes, monsters, and mysterious creatures. Often these roles can be interpreted as good, bad, both, or somewhere in between. However, specifically regarding monsters and other related creatures, many can be defined by their relationship with the humans in which they interact. Japanese folklore particularly presents a multitude of dynamic supernatural beings, yokai, that exemplify such relationships in addition to much more. The kitsune, or fox, has roots deep in Japanese tales of the supernatural and presents a great importance to yokai culture. Not only this, but kitsune also appear in a variety of other contexts, including various local folklores across Japan, all giving the monster different regional names and understandings in literature, historical records, theater, and now popular culture (Foster 178). They have ability to shapeshift, possess people, and are featured in religious worship (Foster 178). Kitsune are “a charming and cunning deceiver that emanates an aura of danger and malevolence; is admired, worshipped, and feared” (Foster 178). The way in which the kitsune has transformed over time can be seen and understood with an analysis of its roles in the world of the supernatural, through its relation to religious deities, its appearances in traditional literature, and finally in its interactions with society and modern culture.

Today, there exists privileges such as an abundance of information coming from modern science and an overall expansion of information to the common person regarding almost any topic imaginable. Without such advancements, humans would be left to their own imaginations as a means of producing explanations for strange and unclear happenings just as they have done throughout early history. This alone is largely a reason for the creation of not only yokai specifically, but many other creatures, supernatural beings, and concepts across cultures. They were often used to explain the invisible and unexplainable. For example, perhaps the noise one may hear outside their window only at night or why there is thunder when it there is lightening could both in some way be explained with yokai. Additionally, however, there are a seemingly infinite number of possible situations in which these monsters could be used. So, it then becomes quite difficult to give them an exact definition or provide an accurate example that would encompass them all. Despite this, one universal characteristic of the yokai is that they are liminal; they exist between two worlds. This could present the idea that they physically appear in liminal spaces like temples, times like dusk, or conceptually like the kitsune among others.

As mentioned, kitsune translates to “fox” in Japanese. So, being that foxes are ordinary animals to most, there is a question of how a seemingly regular creature could possibly play a role in the realm of supernatural beings. Like many yokai, the kitsune is the master of all trades. It can be a helpful, deceiving, yet spiritual creature capable of shape-shifting often depending on the incarnation or local definition in question (Foster 178). By the same logic, kitsune can be interpreted as rather ordinary animals, mysterious other-worldly beasts, or something entirely different, thus being a yokai confusingly placed somewhere in between a number of definitions. Since they are and have been wildly popular across Japan from early times, regional influences and varying interactions too create a multitude of unique stories. Many fox-tales can also be seen throughout China and Korea, contrasting in their own ways. In summation, there is no one “true” definition of the kitsune nor is there one universal understanding of them. They have been represented in aspects of Japanese society so contrastingly over time that they have become quite complex. Despite this, not one definition is more ‘correct’ than the other nor is there any wrong answer as to what the creature is. With this, more sides of the kitsune’s identity can be seen after an examination of their introduction into the spirit world.

Introduction into the World of the Supernatural

Many of the world’s cultures get inspiration from surrounding religions and dominant spiritual practices. For Japan, the country’s roots were largely founded in and motivated by Shintoism (Underwood 5). Shinto translates to “the way of the gods” and is the nation’s native religion (Underwood 5). It is important to notice that the word “Shinto” was never used nor associated with the various practices it is with today until after waves of influence from the continent, mainly Buddhism (Underwood 5). The practices and beliefs that make up what is now Shintoism were simply part of a society that accepted them as not only common knowledge, but knowledge that was deeply rooted. Before the introduction of the powerful, competitive Buddhist force, Shintoism was able to especially flourish. Thus, Shinto deities were naturally granted great authority and power over any other. Not only this, but anything associated or paired with them were given divine respect as well. For example, the sun is esteemed for its connection to Amaterasu, lightning and thunder to Raijin, or even a guardian animal as the kitsune is to Inari (Ellwood 106). Shintoism’s distinctly Japanese nature and influence on supernatural beings has too made the kitsune a distinctly Japanese creature in many ways despite its original Chinese and Korean influence (Ellwood 106). So, looking at Shintoism gives a great backdrop for which the kitsune surfaced into a unique spiritual context for the Japanese people.

As mentioned, one the kitsune’s largest roles outside of being an ordinary animal would be alongside the Shinto deity, Inari. Often being gendered female, Inari is the patron of fertility, rice, and foxes (Ellwood 106). Since it is said that she descends at the beginning of each year to aid in the growth of a good harvest, Inari has as a result seen great popularity (Ellwood 106). Rice to the Japanese people for centuries meant life and survival and quickly became the factor in which much of society relied on (Ellwood 106). So, due to this association and level of personal connection the people of Japan felt toward the crop, many began to see Inari as a representation of themselves (Opler and Hashima 45). Her associations were then as a result, naturally, brought to a national spotlight. Notable, the fox came to be her most common association. When traveling, two white kitsune are said to always be by the deity’s side, assisting in heavenly duties (Ellwood 108). Hence, a new understanding of the fox in the realm of religion was introduced. This understanding would be as a creature that navigates both the physical and spiritual worlds; they were used as guardians and messengers (Ellwood 108). Inari’s already existing strong roots in the everyday lives of worshipers brought new attention to the kitsune. Thus, kitsune became widely-known and dynamic creatures that inhabited the physical world, supernatural world, and somewhere in between. Importantly, this is the point in which the kitsune was officially introduced as a supernatural creature for the much of the Japanese population (Ellwood 108).

Shape-shifting and Society

Cases in which a kitsune morph into a woman surely express negative connotation. From Yoshifuji’s experience, his fox wife is clearly sly and deceptive in their relationship. With this, one must wonder why such qualities are being strongly associated with the female form and what is trying to be told from it. There is a possibility that these traits are being directly drawn from ordinary characteristics of the kitsune. But, since women are so consistently portrayed in the same critical way like in, “How Kaya no Yoshifuji of Bitchu Province Became the Husband of a Fox…”, a gender issue is present. Examining society as a source becomes important because it is a force that effects not only the way many think and act, but it also tampers with the way certain groups are portrayed. Even to this day are the ways in which we behave, dress, and form opinions for example directly influenced by society. One can then apply the same logic to the kitsune and its portrayal as a woman. As the creature has gone through many changes and waves of influence throughout history, it too has been shaped in a similar way that humans have been shaped by society. So, to further explore how women became associated with mischievousness and how mischievousness became associated with kitsune, one must look at the history of treatment and portrayals toward woman in Japanese society.

There is an interesting allegation regarding Buddhism’s contribution toward the situation. Specifically, some say the adaptation of Buddhism in the late 6^th century brought about anti-feminist beliefs (Silva-Grondin 2). Silva-Grondin claims that “spiritually based judgments produced a chauvinist society (2). Spiritually based judgments would include the fact that epiphany in Buddhism was determined to be male solely because Buddha was also male (Jacob 1). Thinking on this basis then unfortunately created years of degradation for women (Jacob 1). They seemed to have been doomed in the eyes of Buddhism at the time. So, this can then be offered as an explanation for negative female portrayal in texts of Buddhist influence like that of Yoshifuji and the kitsune. Sine this tale is a setsuwa, or a short tale often with a moral lesson connected to Buddhist teachings, it is possible to have been affected by the anti-feminist ideologies presented by earlier religious teachings (Krawczyk 49). Even without this claim however, one could still say that there were certain teachings trying to be expressed. It could be as simple as the writers attempting to keep faithful men wary of beautiful young women since they are thought of as tempting in many ways, thus creating a threat to a man’s marriage and morals. Either way, how women were seen in society at the time greatly dictated the way in which they would be written about just as a shape-shifted fox may exemplify.

Modern Interpretations

Looking forward, the kitsune’s legacy has lived on and managed to survive Japan’s post-war modernization and industrialization, a time that endangered much of its traditional culture. With more densely populated human civilization encroaching on the almost untouched forests and villages in which yokai have resided in for centuries, a transformation was seen. To accommodate new lifestyles and interests of the twentieth century, the kitsune was introduced to various aspects of popular culture. When discussing Japanese pop-culture in the last few decades, anime has always been of importance. Anime is an abbreviation of the Japanese word, animēshon, meaning, animation (Clements 1). The abbreviated version was not seen until the middle of the twentieth century, the same time in which the re-adaptation of some traditional culture was introduced (Clements 1). Other terms have been used as well, but with the use of this particularly catchy word came the rise of contemporary anime (Clements 1). One anime that has exemplified the modern adaptation of yokai is, Naruto. Originally published by Shōnen Jump in both anime and manga forms, Naruto introduces a fun, whimsical, culturally Japanese-inspired world full of ninjas, magic powers, and supernatural beasts (Born 42). The main character, Naruto, is notably cursed by a nine-tailed fox that is sealed within him (Born 42). Over time, the fox causes Naruto much trouble, using him as a vessel to wreak havoc in the village (Born 42). The initial situation is very reminiscent of the way in which many yokai-tales have been constructed; there exists a monster in a village that causes trouble to the surrounding population in one way or another. Even after many of the forests and villages that yokai called home were destroyed by the careless growing population and technological advancements, these habitats were later, ironically, utilized as settings for the imagination by the same humans. Not only does this say that traditional settings have become an association with the past, but it also shows that such settings have become fiction to many. As the environments for old folklore have become both physically and mentally removed from modern society, there has been a transformation of them into a fantasy-land of sorts. Then because of this, they have now become perfect material for fantasy anime like, Naruto.

Overtime, Naruto becomes so greatly associated with the fox that the two are perceived as being one; he is however non-physically transformed (Born 42). Despite this not being a classic case of physical shape-shifting, it still strongly reminiscent of one; due to the work of a kitsune, the outsider’s perspective of Naruto is no longer what it originally was. Even without physical transformation, the remaining influences are prominent enough to the villagers that he has been mentally shape-shifted into the fox that possesses him. Naturo’s mind is hindered by the fox just as Yoshifuji similarly experiences the “Konjaku Monoagatari Shu.” It can be observed that this modern adaptation of the kitsune continues to strongly parallel original depictions while still managing to become an updated version of itself. The fox in Naruto later goes on to play different roles and interact with the story in a much different way, but this initial depiction of its relationship to Naruto has become imperative when understanding one of the yokai’s many contemporary portrayals.