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Overview
Module 6 will examine the use of language in the United States of America specifically. Perceptions of speakers and the ability to switch between languages or dialects will be analyzed. The development of a "standard" or "general" form of language, specifically Standard American English will be examined.
Course Objectives Addressed
Recognize and value the issues and complexities of language as a cultural practice
Module Learning Outcomes
Describe the use of code-switching and code meshing among speakers of more than one language or dialect
Recognize and appraise perceptions of speakers of more than one language or dialect
Describe and explain the use of Standard American English
Readings
The Skin That We Speak Edited By Lisa Delpit - pages 16 - 27
Language, Culture, and Communication:
The Meaning of Messages
By Nancy Bonvillain
Chapter 8 (The Acquisition of Language Competence) pages 212 - 218
Chapter 11 (Multilingual Nations)
pages 346 - 365
Chapter 12 (Multilingual Communities)
Although dated, this video, "American Tongues", provides valuable insight into the way that Americans use language. While language continually evolves and dialects change, the United States remains a place of many language variations and cultural differences today.
Code-Switching
The Merriam-Webster dictionary defines "code-switching" as "the switching from the linguistic system of one language or dialect to that of another " (Merriam-Webster, 2023).
Code-switching is often done without conscious thought. However, it can also be used intentionally in order to increase comprehension with a particular conversational partner, to feel more accepted by a certain group, or for various other socio-cultural reasons.
Code-Meshing/Code-Mixing
Code-mixing is defined as "the mixing of two or more languages or language varieties in speech". (Wikipedia contributors, 2022)
Code-meshing is a term used to describe the combining of two or more languages or language varieties in speech. It also carries with it the idea that all languages and language varieties have equal value. (OSU Writing, Literature and Film, 2022)
Jamily Lyiscott's verbal essay provides valuable insight into her use of language and is an artistic example of code-meshing.
Standard American English (SAE)
Standard American English (SAE) is the variety of English used most often in American professional communication such as: textbooks, scholarly articles, newspapers, as well as in televised news programming. It is the "English" that is taught to students and used on standardized testing. It is also sometimes referred to as General American, General American English, Edited American English, or American Standard English. (Nordquist, 2019)
One's use and proficiency of SAE has been widely accepted as an indicator of academic success as well as intelligence. This "standard" has influenced the perceptions of speakers of other English varieties. While comprehension and use of SAE is certainly important for individuals to function in American society, many other language varieties are just as valid and useful. This fact is the basis for much debate and controversy in the United States, especially among speakers of other English language varieties.
Perceptions of Speakers
The way that one speaks and the language variety that they use causes listeners to make judgements about that speaker. Often, these perceptions or stereotypes are based on cultural norms and personal experiences of the listener. As we discussed in the previous modules, one's social class, race, and gender are often assumed based upon language use. Additionally, a speaker's level of intelligence and/or academic success, friendliness and/or trustworthiness may also be assumed based upon their language use. While these perceptions may or may not be valid, they influence communication on a daily basis.
One notable case in recent history was the testimony of Rachel Jeantel in the 2013 trial of George Zimmerman for the murder of Trayvon Martin. Her use of AAVE on the witness stand, being a non-standard variation for an American courtroom, became a topic of much debate. The way that she was perceived because of her language use, by both the jury and spectators, was shared on the internet and through news media. Many felt that she was judged more on the way that she spoke than the words that she spoke.
Self-reflection regarding perceptions, stereotypes and judgements of others based upon language use is important and can help to reduce social biases.
Bi- or Multilingual Speakers and English Language Learners (ELL)
The Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines the term bilingual as "using or able to use two languages especially with equal fluency" (Merriam-Webster, 2023). Multilingual is defined as "using or able to use several languages especially with equal fluency" (Merriam-Webster, 2023).
In the United States, many people are bi- or multilingual. While English is often one of the languages spoken by bi- or multi-lingual people in the U.S., it is not always. For many students, their first exposure to English might come in the classroom.
English Language Learners (ELL) is a term that is used to describe people who are learning English but have limited proficiency. Many ELL have a native language other than English. However, the term ELL is sometimes also used to describe native English speakers who have limited English proficiency. Several other terms and acronyms are also used when working with ELL (e.g., TESOL, ESOL, ESL, LEP. emergent bilingual). These terms are often used interchangeably but are important to differentiate. They are defined more clearly in the chart and video link below.
The U.S. Census Bureau has created an interactive map which provides data of the percentage of "People That Speak English Less Than 'Very Well' in the United States". Here is a map of Bronx County, New York.
(Gonzalez, 2017)
(Staff, 2022)
Discussion Questions
Discussion Questions
No formal discussion questions will be graded this week. However, an open discussion forum is available for this module on Canvas to encourage class discussion.
Assignment
Assignment
Introduction
When hearing a stranger speak, we subconsciously make judgements of the speaker based solely on the way that they speak. We might judge their perceived intelligence, age, gender, social status, race, etc. These judgements alter our responses to the speaker either positively or negatively.
Completion Instructions
Make phone calls to two places of business that you are unfamiliar with. Inquire about their business, asking at least two open-ended questions to allow for a more in-depth conversation than simply a phone greeting.
For each phone call, answer the following questions using the provided template:
What is the name of the business?
What type of business was it? (e.g. - grocery store, plumber, etc.)
What questions did you ask?
What were your perceptions of the person who answered the phone?
Age, gender, race, social status, etc. (There are no "wrong" answers here. This is simply a self-reflection based on your personal experiences.)
Answer the following questions in essay format in the space provided on the template:
What caused you to perceive the speaker in the way that you did?
What personal previous experiences do you feel affected your perceptions of this speaker?
What effect did the context of the call have on your language use or their language use?
How did you alter your language use in response to the other speaker?
What did you learn about your language use and perceptions of others from this experience?
Your perceptions should be presented honestly, without worry about what is considered politically correct, as this is a personal assignment and will not be shared with others. Your assignment should, however, be presented in a professional manner, and display appropriate respect for others. This assignment should be submitted on the template provided with expanded answers to the questions posed, not simply yes or no responses.
This assignment will be graded based on your ability to explain how language use alters one's perception of the speaker. Your assignment should demonstrate an ability to present your personal considerations and observations professionally.
Submission Instructions
Assignments should be submitted through Canvas. Your assignment must be submitted using the template provided. Submissions should not exceed 4 pages in length, excluding the references list.
Required Tasks
Read through the content of this module
Watch the videos embedded in this module
Complete the required readings
Complete and turn in the assignment for this module in Canvas
Continue work on the final project
References
Black English and “Proper” English: The impact of language-based racism - Reading Partners. (2021, October 28). Reading Partners. https://readingpartners.org/blog/black-english-language-based-racism/
ESL Terms. (n.d.). https://www.really-learn-english.com/esl-terms.html
Gonzalez, V. (2017, Aug. 29). Four Surefire Techniques for Engaging English Language Learners. School Library Journal. https://www.slj.com/story/four-surefire-techniques-for-engaging-english-language-learners
Merriam-Webster. (2023). Bilingual. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved February 8, 2023, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/bilingual
Merriam-Webster. (2023). Code-switching. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved February 8, 2023, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/code-switching
Merriam-Webster. (2023). Multilingual. In Merriam-Webster.com dictionary. Retrieved February 8, 2023, from https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/multilingual
Multilingual Family. (2020, June 3). Code-Switching: The Difference Between Code-Switching and Code-Mixing [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KCUFvjQnc1s
Nicholas Marshall. (2020, April 27). American Tongues (1988) [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k5IUmHVj-H8
Nordquist, R. (2019, July 3). Standard American English (SAE). ThoughtCo. https://www.thoughtco.com/standard-american-english-1692134
OSU Writing, Literature and Film. (2022, May 9). “What Is Code-Meshing?” Oregon State Guide to Grammar [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FwFZ7FRcDJU
Scripps News. (2018, July 6). Satirizing “code-switching” on screen [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CJkE_CxUHaI
Snap Language. (2020, August 31). Stereotyped perceptions of accented, grammatically non-standard speakers [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4-C0q2nP9as
Staff. (2022, April 27). 1 in 4 Students is an English Language Learner: Are We Leaving Them Behind? | Counseling@NYU. NYU-MAC. https://counseling.steinhardt.nyu.edu/blog/english-language-learners/
Teachings in Education. (2016, September 28). ELL vs ESL, LEP, Bilingual: The Difference [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AeeBlXKkxeM
TED. (2014, June 19). Jamila Lyiscott: 3 ways to speak English | TED [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=k9fmJ5xQ_mc
TEDx Talks. (2016, August 30). No such thing as correct English | Kellam Barta | TEDxFargo [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VEFM905EOUk
US Census Bureau. (2022, December 13). Nearly 68 Million People Spoke a Language Other Than English at Home in 2019. Census.gov. https://www.census.gov/library/stories/2022/12/languages-we-speak-in-united-states.html
US Census Bureau. (2021, October 8). People That Speak English Less Than “Very Well” in the United States. Census.gov. https://www.census.gov/library/visualizations/interactive/people-that-speak-english-less-than-very-well.html
Wikipedia contributors. (2022, December 6). Code-mixing. Wikipedia. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Code-mixing
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