The cultures that we are born into and nurtured by significantly influence how we view the world and business. Understanding cultural dimensions is important for fostering effective communication, successful business operations, adaptive leadership, harmonious team dynamics, conflict resolution, and personal development in a diverse and interconnected world.
In this section, we will explore some fundamental dimensions of cultural diversity, many of which are derived from Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions Theory. Hofstede first introduced the four dimensions of Power Distance, Individualism/Collectivism, Masculinity/Femininity, and Uncertainty Avoidance in 1980. He later added Long-Term Orientation vs. Short-Term Orientation in 1991 and Indulgence versus Restraint in 2010 (Shi & Wang, 2011). The GLOBE study (Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness) sought to build upon Hofstede’s work and the nine dimensions of this study will be briefly noted as well. In addition to these dimensions, we’ll also look at how time is used and interpreted across various cultures.
Remember that these dimensions provide a broad understanding of cultural tendencies and should not be used to stereotype individuals. Each country’s unique context and individual variation play a significant role in shaping cultural behaviors.
Power Distance
How comfortable are you with critiquing your boss’s decisions? If you are from a low-power distance culture, your answer might be “no problem.” In low-power distance cultures, according to Hofstede, people relate to one another more as equals and less as a reflection of dominant or subordinate roles, regardless of their actual formal roles as employee and manager, for example.
In a high-power distance culture, you would probably be much less likely to challenge the decision, to provide an alternative, or to give input. If you are working with people from a high-power distance culture, you may need to take extra care to elicit feedback and involve them in the discussion because their cultural framework may preclude their participation. They may have learned that less powerful people must accept decisions without comment, even if they have a concern or know there is a significant problem. Unless you are sensitive to cultural orientation and power distance, you may lose valuable information.
Individualism vs. Collectivism
People in individualistic cultures value individual freedom and personal independence, and cultures always have stories to reflect their values. You may recall the movie Rocky of an underdog boxer who gets a shot at the world heavyweight championship. This classic movie showcases the resilience and resourcefulness of individuals when faced with daunting odds, all on their own. Sometimes there is an assist, as in basketball or football, where another person lends a hand, but still, the story repeats itself again and again, reflecting the cultural viewpoint.
Hofstede (1982; 2001; 2005) found that in individualistic cultures like the United States, people perceive their world primarily from their own viewpoint. They perceive themselves as empowered individuals, capable of making their own decisions and able to make an impact on their own lives.
Cultural viewpoint is not an either/or dichotomy but rather a continuum or range. You may belong to some communities that express individualistic cultural values, while others place the focus on a collective viewpoint.
Uncertainty Avoidance
When we meet each other for the first time, we often use what we have previously learned to understand our current context. We also do this to reduce our uncertainty. Some cultures, such as the United States and Britain, are highly tolerant of uncertainty, while others go to great lengths to reduce the element of surprise. Cultures in the Arab world, for example, are high in uncertainty avoidance; they tend to be resistant to change and reluctant to take risks. Whereas a U.S. business negotiator might enthusiastically agree to try a new procedure, the Egyptian counterpart would likely refuse to get involved until all the details are worked out.
Berger and Calabrese (1975) developed uncertainty reduction theory to examine this dynamic aspect of communication. Here are seven axioms of uncertainty:
There is a high level of uncertainty at first. As we get to know one another, our verbal communication increases and our uncertainty begins to decrease.
Following verbal communication, nonverbal communication increases, uncertainty continues to decrease, and more nonverbal displays of affiliation, like nodding one’s head to indicate agreement, will start to be expressed.
When experiencing high levels of uncertainty, we tend to increase our information-seeking behavior, perhaps asking questions to gain more insight. As our understanding increases, uncertainty decreases, as does the information-seeking behavior.
When experiencing high levels of uncertainty, the communication interaction is not as personal or intimate. As uncertainty is reduced, intimacy increases.
When experiencing high levels of uncertainty, communication will feature more reciprocity, or displays of respect. As uncertainty decreases, reciprocity may diminish.
Differences between people increase uncertainty, while similarities decrease it.
Higher levels of uncertainty are associated with a decrease in the indication of liking the other person, while reductions in uncertainty are associated with liking the other person more.
Masculinity vs. Femininity
Consider the following statistics on gender diversity in the workplace (Perry, 2020):
Only 40% of women feel satisfied with the decision-making process at their organization
Men are twice as likely to get hired, regardless of the hiring manager’s gender; while women are more likely to be hired with blind applications
Only 7.4% of Fortune 500 CEOs are women
Companies with equal men and women earn 41% more revenue
Another dimension used to evaluate cultural differences is as masculine or feminine. While some may argue these labels are outdated and reinforce stereotypes, Hofstede found that the roles of men and women vary from culture to culture, but the role of women varies less. Cultures that place high value on characteristics such as assertiveness, competition, and material success are said to stress masculine traits while feminine cultures are described as those who place high value on quality of life, interpersonal relationships, and concern for helping others (Jandt, 2013). Given the statistics provided above, an understanding of this dimension of culture is important for women working or traveling to other countries. As you may have already determined, the United States is a masculine culture, although considered moderate in its orientation. Countries like the US demonstrate value for women in their roles; however, as Perry (2020) describes, cultural beliefs may lead to unequal and discriminatory practices in the treatment of women in the workplace.
Long-Term Orientation vs. Short-Term Orientation
Do you want your reward right now or can you dedicate yourself to a long-term goal? You may work in a culture whose people value immediate results and grow impatient when those results do not materialize. Geert Hofstede discusses this relationship of time orientation to a culture as a “time horizon,” and it underscores the perspective of the individual within a cultural context. Many countries in Asia, influenced by the teachings of Confucius, value a long-term orientation, whereas other countries, including the United States, have a more short-term approach to life and results. Native American cultures are known for holding a long-term orientation, as illustrated by the proverb attributed to the Iroquois that decisions require contemplation of their impact seven generations removed.
If you work within a culture that has a short-term orientation, you may need to place greater emphasis on reciprocation of greetings, gifts, and rewards. For example, if you send a thank-you note the morning after being treated to a business dinner, your host will appreciate your promptness. While there may be a respect for tradition, there is also an emphasis on personal representation and honor, a reflection of identity and integrity. Personal stability and consistency are also valued in a short-term oriented culture, contributing to an overall sense of predictability and familiarity.
Long-term orientation is often marked by persistence, thrift and frugality, and an order to relationships based on age and status. A sense of shame for the family and community is also observed across generations. What an individual does reflects on the family and is carried by immediate and extended family members.
Indulgence vs. Restraint
The 6th dimension, which was added later by Hofstede, is Indulgence vs. Restraint. Indulgent cultures allow gratification of desires and enjoyment of life, while restrained cultures emphasize self-discipline, modesty, and control.
Time Orientation
Edward T. Hall and Mildred Reed Hall state that monochronic time-oriented cultures consider one thing at a time, whereas polychronic time-oriented cultures schedule many things at one time, and time is considered in a more fluid sense. In monochromatic time, interruptions are to be avoided, and everything has its own specific time. Even the multitasker from a monochromatic culture will, for example, recognize the value of work first before play or personal time. The United States, Germany, and Switzerland are often noted as countries that value a monochromatic time orientation.
Polychromatic time looks a little more complicated, with business and family mixing with dinner and dancing. Greece, Italy, Chile, and Saudi Arabia are countries where one can observe this perception of time; business meetings may be scheduled at a fixed time, but when they actually begin may be another story. Also note that the dinner invitation for 8 p.m. may in reality, be more like 9 p.m. If you were to show up on time, you might be the first person to arrive and find that the hosts are not quite ready to receive you.
When in doubt, always ask before the event; many people from polychromatic cultures will be used to foreigner’s tendency to be punctual, even compulsive, about respecting established times for events. The skilled business communicator is aware of this difference and takes steps to anticipate it. The value of time in different cultures is expressed in many ways, and your understanding can help you communicate more effectively.
Building on Hofstede’s research, the GLOBE study (Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness) developed nine cultural dimensions across 62 countries that encompass both actual societal practices ("as is") and values ("should be") in different cultural settings. These dimensions are (Shi & Wang, 2011):
Uncertainty Avoidance: The extent to which a society feels threatened by uncertain or unknown situations and tries to avoid them through strict laws, rules, and regulations.
Power Distance: The degree to which less powerful members of a society accept and expect unequal distribution of power.
Institutional Collectivism: The degree to which individuals in a society are encouraged to act in the interests of the larger group or organization.
In-Group Collectivism: The degree to which individuals in a society are encouraged to take care of their own group or family. High in-group collectivist cultures value group harmony.
Gender Egalitarianism: The degree to which a society minimizes gender discrimination and promotes gender equality.
Assertiveness: The degree to which individuals in a society are assertive, confrontational, and aggressive in social relationships. High assertiveness cultures encourage expressing opinions openly.
Future Orientation: The extent to which a society values future-oriented behaviors such as planning and investing for the future.
Performance Orientation: The degree to which a society values performance, achievement, and excellence. High performance orientation cultures value competitiveness and success.
Humane Orientation: The extent to which a society values kindness, generosity, and compassion towards others. High humane orientation cultures prioritize the welfare of others.
These dimensions of cultural diversity provide valuable insights into cultural variations and help organizations understand how to navigate cross-cultural interactions effectively. Keep in mind that cultural norms can be complex and multifaceted, and individual variations exist within each culture.
Attributions:
Information for this section was modified from
Business Communication for Success Copyright © 2015 by University of Minnesota is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.
Information for the section on Masculinity vs. Femininity was adapted from
Coker, K. (n.d.). Interpersonal skills in a global workplace. In Business communication: Strategies for success is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 4.0 International License, except where otherwise noted.
References:
Berger, C., & Calabrese, R. (1975). Some explorations in initial interactions and beyond: Toward a developmental theory of interpersonal communication. Human communication research, 1, p. 99–112.
Hofstede, G. (1982). Culture’s consequences (2nd ed.). Sage Publications.
Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s consequences: Comparing values, behaviors, institutions, and organizations across nations (2nd ed.). Sage Publications.
Hofstede, G. (2005). Cultures and organizations: Software of the mind (2nd ed.). McGraw-Hill.
Jandt, F. E. (2013). An introduction to intercultural communication: Identities in a global community. Sage Publications.
Perry, N. (2020, December 16). 20 diversity in the workplace statistics to know for 2021. Fundera. https://www.fundera.com/resources/diversity-in-the-workplace-statistics
Shi, X., & Wang, J. (2011). Interpreting Hofstede Model and GLOBE Model: Which way to go for Cross-Cultural research? International Journal of Business and Management, 6(5). https://doi.org/10.5539/ijbm.v6n5p93
The 6 dimensions model of national culture by Geert Hofstede. (2021, February 20). Geert Hofstede. https://geerthofstede.com/culture-geert-hofstede-gert-jan-hofstede/6d-model-of-national-culture/