Punctuation

Apostrophes show up on the editing portion of the STAAR test pretty often. There are some key rules to remember for apostrophes.

1. Use apostrophes in contractions.

For example: Can't, won't, shouldn't, couldn't, y'all, don't. The apostrophe goes where we "took out" letters. Think of it like a little scar!

2. Use apostrophes to show possessive nouns

For singular nouns, simply add an apostrophe and an s. For example: The dog's leash. The writer's desk. The planet's atmosphere.

For plural nouns that do not end in an s, add an apostrophe and an s. For example: The children's toys. The geese's migration route.

For plural nouns that do end in an s, only add an apostrophe. For example: The dogs' leashes (multiple dogs). The writers' desks (multiple writers). The planets' atmospheres (multiple planets).

If you have a proper noun that ends in an s, you could choose to either only add an apostrophe or you could add an apostrophe and an s. For example: "Ms. Feekes' class" and "Ms. Feekes's class" are both technically okay.

3. Do not add an apostrophe to a possessive pronoun. (Me turns into my or mine)

Commas have a LOT of rules, so I'm going to try to make it brief.

1. Use commas between cities and states/countries. (Bastrop, Texas. Paris, France.)

2. Use commas between parts of the date when ALL parts are used. (January 1st, 1990).

3. Titles listed AFTER a name (Robert Downey, Jr.)

4. Nouns of direct address (Mom, can I go outside? Kaley, stop punching your sister. Coach, can I play?)

5. Appositives = interruptions that restate/rename (Ms. Feekes, my English teacher, was at the store.)

6. Interjections (Whoa, that's awesome!)

7. Lists of THREE OR MORE ITEMS. (Bread and cheese. Bread, cheese, and mustard.)

8. Transitions/introductions (In 1969, man landed on the moon. After the war ended, he went home. Dance is a great sport, too.)

9. Compound sentences (combining two independent sentences with a comma and FANBOYS).

Semicolons

1. Semicolons connect related independent clauses.

• What this means is that a semicolon can connect two complete sentences as long as they are closely related.

  • • Example: "I ordered a cheeseburger for lunch; life's too short for counting calories." These two sentences are connected, so I can use a semicolon. Notice the first word after the semicolon is not capitalized.

    • Why can't I use a comma instead? If you replaced the semicolon in that sentence with a comma, you would create a comma splice (which is bad).

2. Delete the conjunction when you use a semicolon.

• What is a conjunction? Conjunctions are your "FANBOYS". You can use a comma and a conjunction to combine two complete sentences.

  • • Example: "I saw a magnificent albatross, and it was eating a mouse."

Let's split that sentence up. "I saw a magnificent albatross, and it was eating a mouse." If I look at just the purple part, I see that I have both a subject and a verb. This means it is a complete sentence. The red part of the sentence also has a subject and verb. I used the comma and the FANBOYS "and" to combine these sentences.

• So how do I rewrite that sentence with a semicolon instead of my comma and conjunction?

  • • Example: "I saw a magnificent albatross; it was eating a mouse."

3. Use semicolons in a serial list.

• Sometimes you need to list items that are long or the items contain internal punctuation (like when you list cities and states). The semicolon helps the reader to see where the items change.

  • • Example: "I need the weather statistics for the following cities: London, England; London, Ontario; Paris, France; Paris, Ontario; Perth, Scotland; Perth, Ontario."

    • Example: "My plan included taking him to a nice—though not necessarily expensive—dinner; going to the park to look at the stars, which, by the way, are amazing this time of year; and serenading him with my accordion."

4. Use semicolons with conjunctive adverbs.

• What is a conjunctive adverb? A conjunctive adverb is an adverb (a word that modifies a verb, adjective, or even an entire sentence) that connects two clauses.

• When you have a conjunctive adverb that links two independent clauses, you should use a semicolon.

• Common conjunctive adverbs: "moreover, nevertheless, however, otherwise, therefore, then, finally, likewise, and consequently"

  • • Examples:

      • "I needed to go for a walk and get some fresh air; also, I needed to buy milk."

      • "Reports of the damage caused by the hurricane were greatly exaggerated; indeed, the storm was not a 'hurricane' at all."

      • "The students had been advised against walking alone at night; however, Cathy decided walking wasn't dangerous if it was early in the evening."

      • "I'm not all that fond of the colors of tiger lilies; moreover, they don't smell very good."

  • **Note** Sometimes these words (however, moreover, also, indeed, etc.) can appear in other parts of a sentence. It is important to make sure that the idea before the word and the idea after the word could be complete sentences. If so, then you can add a semicolon before the conjunctive adverb!

Colons

Colons separating independent clauses

• A colon can be used to separate two independent clauses when a) the second clause is directly related to the first clause and b) when the emphasis is on the second clause.

  • • Example: "A dolphin is not a fish: it is a warm-blooded mammal."

    • Example: "The research is conclusive: climate change is a reality."

Misuse of Colons

A colon should not separate a noun from its verb, a verb from its object or subject complement, a preposition from its subject, or a subject from its predicate.

Incorrect Example: "The three types of muscles in the body are: cardiac, smooth, and skeletal." The verb are is separated from its subject complements (cardiac, smooth, and skeletal).