The rule of the Kakatiya dynasty is considered as the most promising period in the history of Andhra. This is the only dynasty after Satavahanaswhich brought the entire Andhra under one umbrella and ruled for about 300 years. Initially, they were the feudatories of the Eastern and Western Chalukyas and in the 12^th and 13^th centuries they emerged as independent rulers.

KakarthyaGundiyanawas the founder of the Kakatiya dynasty but it was Prolaraja-II who established the Kakatiya dynasty as a sovereign dynasty. Anumakonda Was the capital place of Kakatiya rule.

CHRONOLOGY:

KAKARTHYAGUNDIYANA

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VETARAJA-I

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PROLARAJA-I

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VETARAJA-II

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DURGA RAJA PROLARAJA-II

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RUDRA DEVA (PRATAPA RUDRA)

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MAHA DEVA (brother of Rudra deva)

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GANAPATI DEVA

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RUDRAMADEVI (& GANAPAMBA)

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PRATAPA RUDRA DEVA

• RUDRADEVA: Also known as PRATAPA RUDRA, is considered as one of the prominent rulers of Kakatiya Who constructed the Fort Orugallu and also the famous Thousand pillar temple at Anumakonda. He was succeeded by his brother MAHADEVA.

• GANPATIDEVA(1199-1262 AD) : One of the famous kings of the Kakatiya dynasty who rose to prominence in the confused political conditions of Andhra during the 11^th and 12^th centuries. He was imprisoned by Yadavasbut was later released by Jaitugi, a Yadava king. The reign of Ganapatideva though began under unfavourable circumstances, was destined to become one of the most brilliant periods in the history of Andhra. The conquest of Coastal Andhra was done under his policy of expansion. He set himself the task of restoring the lost political unity of the Telugu country either by war or by diplomacy and he succeeded to a larger extent. The major and notable event that took place under his administration was the change of capital from Hanmakonda to Warangal. The foundations of the new capital was laid down by Rudradeva but it was completed by Ganapatideva and his daughter Rudramadevi.

• RUDRAMADEVI(1262-1289 AD) :the accession of Rudramadevi to the Kakatiya throne is the most remarkable event not just in the history of Kakatiya but the whole South India as she was the 1^st woman who ruled the Telugu region under a man’s name. She was the epitome of courage. She defeated and destroyed the Yadava army. This great victory of Rudramadevi over the Yadavas of Devagiri is recorded in the inscription of Bidar. Rudramadevi had three daughters- Rudrama, Ruyyamma, Mundamma. Under her rule, the glory of Kakatiya reached to zenith. She was defeated and killed in the battlefield of Chandupatlaagainst Ambadeva who scored victory over the Kakatiyas. She was the only Kakatiya ruler who began to choose and recruit the maximum number of warriors from non-aristocratic backgrounds and in return for their unparalleled service and support, she granted them rights over land tax revenue. This significant step was then followed by her successors and also the later Vijayanagara empire. Rudramadevi was followed by Mummadamma'sson, Prataparudra, who ruled from 1289-1323 AD.

• PRATAPARUDRA(1289-1323 AD): He was the last formidable representative of Kakatiya dynasty. He was one of the most remarkable personalities in the history of Medieval Deccan. His main objective was to annihilate the dishonour caused to his family and kingdom by Ambadeva. He thus re-organized his administrative system and consolidated the military which lost its vigour and vitality to the rivals of Kakatiyas. He established his supremacy over the Telugu Cholas of Nellore and later waged a war against Yadavas. From the inscription of Vardhamana Puram It is evident that the Kakatiya forces not only secured victory over the Yadavas but also occupied Manuva, Heluva And Tambulamlocated in the Raichur doab region.

Due to the series of attacks by the Tughlaqs, the inscription of Kaluvacherumentions that Prataparudra committed suicide on the banks of Narmada while being taken to Delhi as a prisoner.

• POLITY AND SOCIETY:The Kakatiyas polity was based on monarchical system. Generally, in the process of succession, they followed the law of primogeniture but a woman coming to the throne was a remarkable exception. In the military organization, forts like played crucial role like giridurgas of Anumakonda, Raichur, Gandikota etc. Traditional historians perceive the society as based on the Varnashrama dharma model which includes Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas and Shudras. We also notice the emergence of sub-castes. Kingship was not restricted to the Kshatriyas alone. Anyone could become a ruler, provided he had the necessary qualities and abilities.

• CULTURE & LITERATURE: The era of Kakatiya is best known for its exceptional culture and literary works. The Sanskrit language enjoyed a very significant place in this age as it was considered as the language of Aristocracy. Anantasuri, Nandi, Achitendra and Isvara Puri, Vidyanadha, Japanese were the renownedSanskrit poets of this age. Vidyanadha'sPrathaparudrayasobhushanaand Jayapaseni'sNrityaratnavali and Gitaratnavaliwere the most celebrated works. In the Telugu literature, the most remarkable works are-

· TikkannaSomayaji'sNirvachananottaramayanamu

· MantriBhaskara'sBhaskaraRamayanamu

· GonaBudda Reddy’s Ranganatha Ramayanam

The Kakatiyas Architecture are mostly inspired from the Chalukyan architecture but the distinctive feature of the Kakatiyas architecture is the portrayal of more indigenous art followed by the texts. The monuments were built mostly using granite, sandstone, bricks and lime. They specifically used Black granite for pillars. The Thousand pillared temple is a landmark in the evolution of the Kakatiya architecture. Other masterpieces include:

· Rudresvaratemplebuilt by RecharlaRudra, the commander-in-chief of Ganapati Deva

· Gomateshwara Temple at Manthani

· Erakesvara and the Namesvaraat Pillalamarri

The Kakatiya rule in Andhra was an era of transformation. The Kakatiya age witnessed the development of agriculture, trade, commerce, literature, architecture and art. With the end of Prataparudra, ends the rule of Kakatiyasfollowed by a period of anarchy and confusion and later followed by the establishment of the ReddyKingdom.

The first quarter of the 14^th century saw the end of the Kakatiyas of Warangal. The whole of Andhra came under the control of the Delhi Sultanate. During this period, there were as many kingdoms and principalities as there were chiefs. The chief kingdoms were:

· The kingdom of Warangal under Kapaya Nayaka.

· The Velamas of Rachakonda and Devarakonda.

· The Vijayanagara kingdom

· The Reddys of Kondaveedu.

The Reddys originally belonged to an agricultural family. They were called Pantakapu, Desati dynasty. Kondaveedu Reddy originally worked under Kakatiyas of Warangal.

• PROLAYAVERMA REDDY:Founder of Reddy kingdom. Played a very significant role in expelling the Muslims from Coastal Andhra region. Constructed many forts like Dharanikota, Charavolu, Vinukonda, Kondaveedu, Bellamkonda For the protection of the kingdom.

He was an ardent supporter of Hindu dharma. Prolaya came into conflict with Alauddin Bahmani and came out successful. During this time the Reddys conquered the port of Mortupally. Thus, the Reddys grew powerful and their impact increased in the coastal tract. Prolaya Vema ruled his dominion practically as an independent chief, though nominally acknowledged the supremacy of Prolaya Nayaka and Kapayanayaka. Prolaya took advantage of the conflict between Alauddin Hasan(Bahamani) and Kapayanayaka, he broke his bonds of allegiance and organized the defence of his dominion to ward off possible attack of enemies. He also stood against another rising Hindu kingdom- Vijayanagara which was fast developing into a formidable power by the collective efforts of the brothers Harihara and Bukka. The Vijayanagara inscriptions in the Kovur, Kavali and Udayagiri regions prove that the Vijayanagara authority penetrated into the Pinnar valley. Thus the two rising kingdoms of Kondaveedu and Vijayanagara, ever since the beginning of their rule came into conflict with one another in their struggle for supremacy. Prolaya Vema Earned the gratitude of thousands of pilgrims by building steps to facilitate the ascent to the great shrine of God Mallikarjuna of Srisailam and God Narasimha of Ahobilam. The author Errapragada was his court poet.

• CULTURAL AND POLITICAL CONTRIBUTION: Monarchy was in vogue during the Reddy period. Reddy kings maintained a council of ministers to advice them on all matters regarding the state. Chief minister was called Pradhan And the remaining council of ministers were called Mantri. TheReddy kings generally adhered to the principle of appointing Brahmins as their chief ministers. The king divided the kingdom into various territorial units like- Nadu, Bhumi, Sthala, Grama etc. There were feudal chiefs who were the governors appointed by the king over a territory of limited extent on a military tenure and there were also tributaries, those who rented one or more villages on condition of paying annual tribute to the king.

The Reddy kings took keen interest in patronizing poets and scholars. Anantha Reddy was a king, poet and a great patron of learning. He wrote VasantaRajya- A work on Natya. The next illustrious king famed for his Sanskrit scholarship and patronage was KomativermaReddy. He is the author of Sahitya Chintan. His other note-worthy work is Sangeetachintamani. With the rise of Reddys to power, Telugu also emerged and occupied an equal patronage. The 1^st Telugu poet was Errapragada. His works are- Aranyaparva, Harivamsa, Ramayana, Narasimhapuranam.Srinatha was another great poet of this age. He wrote Harivilasamu, SrungaraNaishadham etc. He was patronized by Gomtiverma Reddy and later by king VeeraBhadra Reddy.

RachavermaReddy(1420-29AD) was the last Reddy ruler of Kondaveedu. Being an incapable ruler, he oppressed the people by over taxation. He was killed by his subordinate. The Kondaveedu kingdom was immediately annexed by the Vijayanagara, marking the end of the Reddy dynasty.

The foundation of Vijayanagara empire was laid by the two brothers Harihara and Bukka of the Sangama dynasty in the year 13336 AD. They were initially the ministers of Kampili state. They were imprisoned by the forces of Sultan Muhammed Tughlaq. In the course of time, at the instance of their guru Vidyaranya, they established their kingdom with its capital at Vijayanagara. Harihara(1336-1356AD) became the first ruler and in the year 1336 AD, he founded the independent kingdom of Hampi- Hasti- Navati and on the day of coronation, he established Vijayanagara as the capital city. He was a capable ruler who established and encouraged agriculture and strengthened the fortification of the forts of Badami, Udayagiri and Gooti. Bukka Succeeded his brother on the throne of Vijayanagara in 1336. He Centralized the administration and brought provincial governors under his effective control and conquered Tamil Nadu. He compelled Bahamani ruler Muhammed Shah-II to hand over Krishna- Tungabhadra doab to him, marking the beginning of the Vijayanagara- Bahmani conflict on a large scale during his reign. However, the most important conquest was that of Mathura because of which his empire extended till Rameswaram in the extreme South. Bukka-I was succeeded by his sonHarihara-II who assumed the title of Maharajadhiraj. He focused on the policy of Easter expansion. Bahamani sultans- Muhammed Shah-II and Firoz shah respectively attempted to capture Krishna- Tungabhadra doab from him but failed. He was a successful commander and proved himself as an equally successful administrator. He died in 1404 AD and Devaraya-I became the next ruler after winning the war of succession.

Devaraya-I (1406-22 AD) strengthened his cavalry and recruited Turkish arches in it. During his reign, Vijayanagara became the centre of learning in the South. He died in the year 1422 AD and was succeeded by his son Ramachandra, who ruled only for a few months and he was succeeded by his brother Vijaya-I.

Vijaya-I ruled between 1422-30 AD and left the administration in the hands of his son Devaraya, who ascended the throne after his death.

Devaraya-II (1422-46 AD) was the greatest ruler of the Sangama dynasty. He began the practice of recruiting Muslims in the army. He was also called as Immadi Deva Raya. According to his inscriptions, he acquired the title Gajabetekara. He is the author of two Sanskrit works- MananatakaSudhanidhiand a commentary on the Brahma Sutras Of Badarayana.

Since there was no clear establishment of primogeniture, a series of battles took place to win the throne of Vijaya Vijayanagar after the death of Devaraya-II.

The throne was finally captured by SaluvaNarasimha, the chief of Chandragiri in the year 1485 ADthus marking the beginning of rule of the Saluva Dynasty.

v SALUVA DYNASTY: SaluvaNarasimharemained the first and the last ruler of his dynasty. He was succeeded by his brother Sri Krishnadeva Raya, the greatest ruler of all the times.

Ø SRI KRISHNADEVARAYA: Krishnadeva Raya proved himself to be the greatest ruler of Vijayanagara. During his reign, Vijayanagara emerged as a powerful and prosperous kingdom with the strongest military power in the entire South. He defeated the rebellious chiefs of Ummathur, the Gajapatis of Orissa, and Adil Shah of Bijapur. By that time, the Bahmani Kingdom was divided into 5 independent kingdoms, yet all these 5 kingdoms were proved to be the formidable enemies of Vijayanagara. Therefore, his main aim was to defeat those Muslim states which were determined to destroy Vijayanagara. He defeated all his enemies and re-captured all territories and forts of Vijayanagara empire lost by its previous rulers. He successfully invaded Gulbarga and Bidar and restored Sultan Mahmud to the throne. Thus, he assumed the title of Yavana rajya Sthapana acharya, which literally means ‘Restorer of Yavana kingdom’.

Krishnadeva Raya was also a great patron of art and literature and was also known as Andhra Bhoja. His court was decked with Ashtadiggajas- the 8 greatest poets. The works of Krishnadeva Raya include:

· Amuktamalyada (Telugu)

· Jambavati Kalyanam(Sanskrit)

He built the famous temples of Krishnaswamy, Hazara Ramaswamy and Vittala Swamy at his capital. The vijayanagara empire reached its peak in peace, order, power, prosperity and learning during his reign. He was succeeded by his brother Achyutharaya, who was proved to be a weak ruler. He was succeeded bySadasivarayawho ascended the throne in the year 1543 AD again was not a capable ruler. The real power rested in the hands of Ramaraja, the son-in-law of Krishnadeva. The 5 independent Bahamani kingdoms United themselves in the name of Islam against the Vijayanagara. Thus the famous Battle of Talikotatook place on 23^rd January 1565 AD which is considered to mark the end of the great Vijayanagara. The kingdom came to an end a century after the battle of Talikotaunder the Aravidu Dynasty founded by Tirumala Raya with its capital at Penugonda. In the year 1672AD, Vijayanagara rule ended.

The advent of the Mughals in the early 16th century is remarkable not because it ended the 300 years rule of Delhi Sultanate, but it heralded a new era in the Indian subcontinent. The Mughal empire which dazzled the contemporary world by its extensive territories, military might, economic prosperity and cultural achievements ultimately added to the glory and richness of Indian civilization.

The name 'Mughal' derived from the Mongol. Though the term evokes the grandeur of the empire, it was not the name the rulers of the dynasty chosen for themselves. They referred to themselves as 'Timurids'.

During the period from 1526 to 1707 there were six great rulers namely Babur, Humayun, Akbar, Jahangir, Shah-Jahan and Aurangzeb. Though it was continued till 1857, it was almost all nominal. The six Mughals kings were known as the 'Greater Mughals'.

Babur (the first mughal king also the founder) :-

Babur was a hard pressed person but after having his foothold in Kabul, he did not satisfied himself with the conquest and thought of India as he was very ambitious. He wanted to have a much domination and territories he could. There are several causes for Babur invasion.

Babur whose original name was Zahiruddin Mohammed Babur, born in February, 1473 AD and related to Changhiz Khan from his mother's side and Turkish ruler Timur on the paternal side. Babur means Tiger in Persian language. He who was driven from his central Asian homeland, Farghana by the warring Uzbeks, first established himself at Kabul in 1504 and then in 1526 by defeating Ibrahim Lodi in the first Panipat Battle near Delhi.

Since Babur decided to stay in India as the king of Delhi he concentrated to consolidate his position. But Rajputs who were determined to establish a Hindu Raj at Delhi under the leadership of Rana Sangrama Singh of Mehwad invariably fought with Babur. In the critical battle that took place at Kanwah in 1527 Rajputs were defeated. Which in fact made Babur the real sovereign of Delhi. Later, Babur defeated Medni Rai of Chanderi in 1528. Mohammed Lodi, brother of Ibrahim Lodi with the support of Bengal ruler Nasrat Shah at Gogra in 1529 and finally Babur died at the age of 48.

Babur's successor, Nasiruddin Humayun (the second Mughal king) (1530-40, 1555-1556) :-

whose meaning was 'Lucky fellow's expanded the frontiers of the empire, but lost it to the Afghan leader Sher Shah Sur. Though Humayun reoccupied Delhi with the support of Tahman Shah of Persia in 1555, he did not live long and died in 1556. That is why he was described as an unlucky ruler in Mughal history, "Humayun tumbled through life and tumbled out of it."

Humayun was the fortunate was eldest son of Babur and he had three bothers, kamran, Askari and Hindal. He was born at Kabul in March 1508. He learned Turkish, Persian and Arabic. He was appointed the Governor of Badakshan khan at the age of 20 years. After the death of his father he seated himself on the throne of Agra on 30 th December 1530.

Sher Shah Sur

• whose original name was Farid, belongs to "Sur" dynasty. He was born in 1472, became a governor of his father Jagir Farghana and proved himself as a good ruler. Later on he became the governor of Bihar. It was during that time Farid obtained the title of 'Sherkhan' for slaying a tiger. He defeated the then Delhi king Humayun in the battlefields of Chausa and finally Kanuj and declared himself as a ruler of Delhi in 1540 with the title of "Shershah". He was one great man of history who blossomed out of dust into glory.

• Shershah was more popular for his brilliant administration than conqueror. He was the first Muslim ruler to found an empire broadly based on the people's will. No government, not even the British has shown as much wisdom as the Pathan.

• Territories of the Sur dynasty :- The sur dynasty was an empire established by the Afghans. Who ruled a large territory in the northern part of Indian subcontinent for nearly 16 years, between 1540 till 1556, with sasaram modern day Bihar, serving as its capital.

• The Sur dynasty ruled the north of India and parts of Nepal, Bangladesh and Pakistan.

• Sher Shah Sur's successor :- Islam Shah Sur was the successor of Sher Shah Sur. He was the second Sur dynasty ruler which ruled a part of India in the 16th century. His original name was Jalal Khan and he was the second son of Sher Shah Sur.

• The collapsed of Sur Dynasty:- Sher Shah's successors were unfortunately incompetent and succumbed to old Afghan rivalries. His successors were unfit to carry on his work of reconstruction. Instead of trying to secure the support of all the sections of society, they created dissensions and group-rivalries. Islam Shah was responsible for the destruction of many of those nobles who had a lot under Sher Shah. The success of Sher Shah was due to the large extent of their whole-hearted devotion and bravery.

• Adil Shah Sur was the last successor of the Sur dynasty. All these events result in the downfall of the Sur dynasty.

Abu’l Fath Jalaluddin Muhammad Akbar

He was born in 1542 AD to Humayun and Hamida Banu Begum at Amarkot in Rana Veersal’s Palace. He was 14 years old when he ascended the throne at Kalanaur in 1556 AD. He was the third Mughal emperor. Akbar reorganised the central machinery of administration on the basis of division of power between various departments. He abolished the Jizya and pilgrimage tax, and the forcible conversion of prisoners of war. The use of these was also forbidden. He believed in Sulh-i-Kul i.e. peace for all. His land revenue system was known as Todarmal Bandobast or Zabti system. The Mansabdari system was another feature of administration during Akbar’s reign to organise the nobility as well as the Army. He was the first Mughal ruler to separate religion from politics. He culminated in Din-i-Ilahi, a new religion which profounded Sufi divine monotheism and recognised no Prophet. Persian was made the official language of the Mughal Empire under his rule. Akbar shifted his court to Fathepur Sikri from Agra, in honour of the Sufi saint Sheikh Salim Chishti. He was a great patron of literature and art and architecture. He patronised a lot of literary works including the well known Akbarnama (the appendix of which was called Ain-i-Akbari) written by Abul Fazal ibn Mubarak.

Nuruddin Muhammad Salim known by his imperial name Jahangir

He was the fourth Mughal Emperor, who ruled from 1605-27 AD. Salim was born at Fatehpur Sikri in 1569 AD. He ascended the throne after his father Akbar in 1605 AD. He mostly lived in Lahore, which he adorned with gardens and buildings. Jahangir’s wife Nurjahan exercised tremendous influence over the state affairs. She was made the official Badshah Begum. Coins were stuck in her name and all royal farmans bared her name. Jahangir restored Muhammad faith. He was justice loving, a huge bell with a chain of 30 yard was placed at the gate of royal palace in Agra and anybody who sought justice from the emperor had to strike the bell. This bell was called Zanzir-i-Adil. Captain Hawkins (1608-11 AD) and Sir Thomas Roe (1615-16 AD). Pietxa Valle, the famous traveller came during his reign. He wrote his autobiography, Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri in Persian. He died in 1627 AD and was buried at Lahore.

Shahabuddin Muhammad Khurram better known by his regnal name Shah Jahan

He was the fifth Mughal Emperor, who reigned from 1628-58 AD. He was born in 1592 AD at Lahore. He was the youngest prince to be appointed as the Governor of Deccan, at the age of 15. In 1612 AD, he got married to Arjamand Bano Begum (Mumtaz Mahal) for whom he later built the famous monument Taj Mahal, one of the seven wonders of the world. Shahjahan’s policy of annexing Deccan was successful. Ahmednaga was annexed while Bijapur and Golconda accepted his suzerainty. The Portguese established their control over Satgaon, through a Shahi Farman. They started misusing their authority. Shahjahan ordered Qasim Khan in 1632 to drive the Portuguese out of Hughli. Shahjahan was the second Indian ruler to invade Central Asia. Two French travellers : Bernier and Tavernier, and the Italian traveller Nicolo Manucci visited India during his reign. Peter Mundi described the famine during Shah Jahan's rule. His reign is considered as the golden age of the Mughal Empire. The last eight years of his life were very painful, because of the brutal war of succession between his four sons. He was imprisoned by his son Aurangzeb in Agra Fort and died in 1658 AD. He was buried at Taj Mahal besides his loving wife.

Muhiuddin Muhammad, commonly known by the sobriquet Aurangzeb or by his regnal title Alamgir

He was the third son of Shahjahan born at Ujjain in 1618. He ruled over almost the entire Indian sub continent for a period of 49 years. He forbade the inscription of Kalma on the coins, also forbade Sati and Jharokha-darshan. He ended the celebration of Navroz and in 1679 AD he reinforced Jaziya. Aurangzeb was a Sunni orthodox Muslim, who wanted to convert India from Dar-ul-Harb to Dar-ul-Islam. However, the Hindu Mansabdars maintained their high position during his rule. Auranbzeb died in 1707 AD and was buried at Khuldabad (Daulatabad) near Aurangabad.

Mughal Administration

Mughal dynasty which remained in the glory and grandeur in India for nearly 200 years not because of their conquests and expansionist policy but their enormous contribution in the field of Administration. Of course it was Akbar who conceived and devised and became chief architect of the Mughal Administration. Mughal rulers from Babur to Shah Jahan every emperor gave up it's theocratic character and followed a very liberal policy in the religious affairs except Aurangzeb. They did not pay any attention to the Kalifa like their predecessors. Both Hindus and Muslims were equally utilized in Mughal administration for running state administration. The granting of titles to men of merit was an important aspect of Mughal polity. The emperor's themselves used to pay attention to the working of administration.

Art and architecture under Mughals :-

The greater Mughals were proved not only as great conquerors and excellent administrations but also as great admirers of art, literature and fine arts. Except Aurangzeb all paid sufficient attention towards the men of letters, painters and architects. Indeed some of the emperors were painters, architects and writers. Babur, Humayun, Jahangir themselves wrote books and patronized scholars. Though Akbar was not a literate he showed keen desire to develop it. It was a period of excellent development in the field of Indo-Muslim Art and Literature.

Indian painting was also patronized by Akbar who induced the persian style and persian technique. It was under Jahangir that the paintings received considerable care and attention.

Socio -economic structure of Mughals:-

There were three classes: the rich, middle class, and poor. The differences between the richest section of society and the poorest were very wide. At the top of the social and economic ladder was the king followed by his nobles. The middle class was usually merchants, industrialists and various other professionals .

Culture of the Mughals :-

The Mughals Empire was at its most opulent and powerful. There was culture and economic progress together with religious harmony. It commissioned the translations of the great Indian classics from Sanskrit into Perian.

Aurganzeb was the last powerful and illustrious ruler of the Mughal Empire. His successors were very weak and many of them weren’t able to keep up the charm of their ancestors. In 1837 the last Mughal Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar II ascended the Mughal throne. He was a nominal emperor, as the Mughal Empire existed in name only and his authority was limited only to the walled city of Shahjahanabad. During the 1857 sepoy revolt, he was proclaimed the emperor of India by the rebels but due to his involvement in the rebellion, the British exiled him to Rangoon after convicting him on several charges. He died in 1862 AD and was buried at Rangoon.

Peshwas were the loyal ministers of Marathas state who were appointed to assist the king in different administrative as well as political affairs. Among seven Peshwas, Balaji Rao I was the ablest Peshwas and the rest were very weak. Balaji Vishwanath - (AD 1713 to 1721) - He was appointed as a Peshwa (Prime Minister) by Sahuji in 1713 to assist a young Shahu for consolidation of the empire. He raised the Marathas empire into zenith points after winning over almost all the sardar to the side of Shahu. He made the post very important as well as hereditary. Bajirao Peshwa I (AD 1721 to 1740) – He was the eldest son of Balaji Vishwanath; succeeded him as Peshwas at the young age of 20. He was known for his guerrilla tactics after Shivaji.

Balaji Baji Rao (AD 1740-1761) – He was popularly known as Nana Saheb who succeeded his father at the age of 20. He died in 1761 after hearing that his son (Viswas Rao) and cousin (Sadasiv) died at the battlefield of Panipat. Peshwa Madhav Rao I – He was the eldest surviving member of the Peshwas family who became de facto ruler of the state but after his death, the Peshwaship lost its essence.

Administration of Peshwas

The Peshwas named their secretariat as Huzur Daftar which was situated in Poona. Under Peshwaship, the feudal lords ruled independently over their Jagirs.

They divided the village into small units for administration which were headed by the Patils. Kulkarni assists them in keeping the documents of the village. Potters were meant to inspect the currency.

Ballute System- Under this system, farmers had to make payment in kind but most of the time they have to pay agricultural produce every year after harvesting.

The bigger units of administration were Taraf, Pargana, Sarkar and Suba where Mamlatkar was the highest personnel who was assisted by Kamvisdar.

To check corruption, Deshmukh, Despande and Darakhdars were appointed.

Conclusion : Hence, politically the ground for establishment of an independent Maratha state was prepared by the advance of Mughal armies in the South. The fall of Khandesh, the gradual disappearance of the Ahmednagar and the creation of the Mughal Viceroyalty in the Deccan region affected every aspect of Maratha life, which induced an awakening among the Marathas as a nation under the leadership of Shivaji and others. But unfortunately, the legacies of Marathas confederacy decayed in front of the British imperialism.

Sikhism was founded by Guru Nanak Dev at the beginning of the sixteenth century. Guru Nanak was born on April 15, 1469 in the Western Punjab village of Talwandi. Even as a child, he was given to deep thinking with no interest in worldly life. At the age of thirty, he got enlightenment. Thereafter, he travelled almost the whole of the country and went over to Mecca and Baghdad, preaching his message. On his death he was followed by nine other Gurus in succession. Guru Angad Dev Ji (1504-1552) was Guru for thirteen years (1539-1552). He created a new script gurmukhi and gave the Sikhs a written language. After his death Guru Amar Das Ji (1479-1574) followed in succession. He showed great devotion and made the langar an integral part of Sikhism. Guru Ram Das Ji took over as the fourth Guru, he composed hymns, which were later incorporated in the sacred writings. Guru Arjan Dev Ji became the fifth Guru of Sikhism. He built the world famous Harmandir Sahib, popularly known as the Golden Temple in Amritsar. He also compiled the holy Granth Sahib, a sacred religious book of the Sikhs. Guru Arjan Dev suffered martyrdom in 1606 and was followed by Siri Guru Hargobind, who maintained a standing army and symbolically wore two swords, representing spiritual and temporal power. Guru Siri Har Rai, the seventh Guru was born in 1630 and spent most of his life in devotional meditation and preaching the teachings of Guru Nanak. He passed away in 1661 and ordained his second son, Harkishan as the Guru. Guru Shri Har Krishan Ji got enlightenment in 1661. He gave his life while serving and healing the epidemic-stricken people in Delhi. The place where he breathed his last is the one where the renowned Gurdwara Bangla Sahib stands in Delhi. Siri Guru Tegh Bahadur became Guru in 1664. When Mughal Governor of Kashmir resorted to forcible conversion of Hindus, Guru Tegh Bahadur decided to fight it out. Gurdwara Sisganj in Delhi stands at the place of Guru Sahib's martyrdom and Gurdwara Rakab Ganj at the site of his cremation. The tenth guru, Guru Gobind Singh, was born in 1666 and became guru after the martyrdom of his father Guru Tegh Bahadur. Guru Gobind Singh, at the time of his death, invested the 'guru Granth Sahib' as the supreme head of the sikhs, thus bringing the practice of nominating a religious head to a grinding halt.