India is a land of ancient civilizations. India's social, economic, and cultural configurations are the products of a long process of regional expansion. Indian history begins with the birth of the Indus Valley Civilization and the coming of the Aryans. These two phases are usually described as the pre-Vedic and Vedic age.It is followed by the rise of magnificent empires.

During this age, people used crude and rough implements made of rock. The northern hemisphere, used to experience heavy snow fall, and the southern parts, frequented by rains. Heavy and large sized animals lived on the earth during the period. Man lived a nomadic life, and did not possess any permanent dwelling. He used to roam around and gather food, consisting of fruits, leaves, nuts, roots and raw meat. Basing on the type of the implements used by him, period was further divided into three stages, the first second and third phase. During the first phase, he used weapons made of big rocks and in the second phase used, a better and slightly sharpened stones, and in the third stage, used weapons with blades. They developed skills in manufacturing hand axes of stone and also used another implement, called cleaver. These hand axes were found by Robert Bruce at Kartalayar valley in Tamilnadu and at Vodamadurai, on the banks of Narmada in Madhya Pradesh and near the slopes of Sivalik mountain ranges. These types of implements was also stated to have been found in South Africa, lakhs of years ago. In India, the Palaeolithic man lived in Indus valley, Pallavaram in Madras, Cuddapah, Bellary and in many places in South India. The old stone age people led a savage life. They hunted for food, wore leaves, barks and animal hides as garments. They had no religion. They exposed their dead to the nature. Mostly the palaeolithic people were dark in complexion & short, started and with flat noses, remind one of Negrito race. People of these physical features are found in Andaman Islands. The third stage, or phase of old stone-age people, left his nomadic life and started living in caves, and the proof was found near Bethamcherla in Kurnool District by Robert Bruce.

Evidence of the Mesolithic people was found by A.C.L. Carlyle in 1889. The tools were so small, that they were fixed in bone of wooden handles and because of the small size, the age was called Mesolithic age. The Mesolithicmen were primarily hunters. They hunted cow, buffalo, the ox and the goat. They domesticted dog, deer and pig. They knew pottery. They wore ornaments of shells and beads. From the fossils that were found, it was learnt that the animals, rat, squirrel, mongoose, rabbit, goat, sheep, pig, were there during the age, along with bigger animals, like. rhinoceros, wild bear, bison, spotted deer, porcupine also lived. The beginnings of religion were found. People buried their dead, along with some tools, shows, their belief in life after death. The people were fairly tall and with long heads and protruding lips, reminding the historian of Hammetic people of Egypt, the mediterranean Hedda races.Most Historians agree, the period of the mesolithic age as between 8400 - 3515 B.C.

It was the age when considerable progress was achieved when the implements of stone were ground, groved and polished, so as to serve various purposes. The archaeologists, however, noticed certain differences in the use of the materials in North, South and Eastern parts. The neo-lithic remains in northen India were mainly found on the banks of Jhelum. People of this age achieved a fairly advanced state of living. The nomadic way of living gave place to living in permanent dwellings.In the earlier days they used big stones, to kill big animals and when the number diminished, they had to hunt fast running animals and had to change and sharpen their weapons. Anthropologists and Biologists, observed that, the size of the skull of man enlarged and the brain and thinking power and intelligence grew more. They cultivated lands and domesticated animals. They knew pottery and used it extensively. They worshipped ancestral spirits and burried their dead in tombs known as dolems. They cultivated lands and grew corn and fruits. The Neolithic remains were mostly found in Salem, Cuddapah, Bellary, Telangana, Gujarat and Kathiawar.

From the food gatherer, man grew in to a producer of food and as a self supporting individual. It was just change but not any revolution. Man here developed technical skills, which he handed over to generations as hereditary, which during course of time facilitated the desire to learn more, which led him into the Metal age.

Metal age is also called as pre-harappan age. The use of metals like copper, bronze and iron was noticed in the age. Instead of stone implements man started using metal implements. Copper was extensively used in northern India however in south, the change from the stone to the iron was almost direct. The harappan culture took its birth, in the north, during this time.

Early Vedic Age (c.1500-c.1100 BCE)

The Vedic period (c.1500-c.1100 BCE) is the period in the late Bronze Age and the early Iron Age of the history of India. During this period the Vedas were composed in the northern Indian sub continent. The Vedas are liturgical text which formed the basis of the influential Brahamanical ideology, which developed in the Kuru Kingdom, a tribal union of Indo –Aryan tribes. The Vedas contain details of life during this period that have been interpreted to be historical and constitute the primary sources for understanding the period. These documents, alongside the corresponding archaeological record, allow for the evolution of the Indo- Aryan and Vedic culture to be traced and inferred. The Vedas were composed and orally transmitted with precision by speakers of an old Indo- Aryan language who had migrated into the north western regions of the Indian sub continent early in this period.

1. ECONOMY :

1. Aryans followed a mixed economy consisting of both agriculture and pastoralism

2. They possessed better knowlege in agriculture – plouygh share is mentioned in Rigveda. They were acquainted with sowing, harvesting, threshing and knew about different seasons.

3. The reference of the cow in the Rig Veda shows that Rigvedic Aryans were predominantly pastorial people. The horse was almoist as important as cow.

4. The cow was the standard unit of exchange. Gold coins like Nishka, Krishna and Satmana were also in use.

2. POLITY:

1. The election of the King was done by the tribal assembly (Samiti) .

2. Several Tribal or clan based Assemblies existed such as the Samiti , Sabha, Vidatha and Gana. The Samiti was the National Assembly of the the people, while the Sabha was Council of Elders.

3. The King was assisted by the many functionaries including Purohita, Senani, Bali etc.

4. There was no regular or standing Army. However, there were groups of Infantry and Charioteers. Weapons were made of Stone,Wood, Bone and Metal.

3. SOCIETY:

1. Kinship was the basis of Society’s structure. Patriachial family structure was prevalent.

2. The tribes were known as Jana or Vis and these were further divided into Gramas.

3. Women- Women in the Vedic society were respected a lot . They were allowed to acquire education and to participate in political sphere. Various religious rituals couldn’t be performed without them.

4. Varna System The vedic society was classified into four Varnas ;- Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishya and Sudras.

5. Marriages - Eight type of marriages were in practice during the VedicPeriod- Brahma, Daiva, Arsa, Prajapatya, Gandharva, Asura, Rakshasa and Paishacha.

4. RELIGION:

1. Rig Vedic people beleived in nature worship and not in erecting temples or idol worship. They perfo rmed Yagnas in open areas. They practiced certain important rituals such as the Rajasuya, Asvamedha and Vajapeya.

2. They worhipped various deities such as Soma,Indra, Agni, Varuna,Surya,Savigtri, Mitra, Aditi,Usha,Sindhu,Yama etc.

Later Vedic Age or Epic Age (c.1000-c.600 BCE)

The later Vedic Age is also known as the Epic Age because two great epics i.e. Ramayana and Mahabharata were written during this period.

1. POLITY

1. Formation of large kingdoms ; for all practical purposes.

2. Kingship became hereditary. Assembly lost its importance and royal power increased at their cost. Women were no longer permitted to attend assemblies.

3. The Term Rashtra indicating territory , first appeared in this period.

4. Taittariya Brahmana refers to the theory of divine origin of kingship.

5. Civil functionaries or twelve Ratninas of the time were – Purohita,Mahishi, Yuvaraja, Sarathi, Bhagadugha, Akshavapa , Palagala, Govikarta, Senani, Gramani, Kshatri and Sangrahitri.

6. The development of Judiciary. Kings administered the criminal court. Serious crimes were the killing of an embryo, homicide, the murder of a Brahmin, stealing of gold and drinking sura. Treason was a capital offence.

2. SOCIETY:

1. The forefold division (Varna system) of society became more clear. Initially based on occupation, it later became hereditary.

2. The Ashram system was formed to attain four purusharthas. The four ashramas i.e. the stages of life were – Brahmacharya, Grihastha, Vanaprastha and Sanyasa.

3. Women- Position of women declined. Aitareya Brahmana states that daughter is the source of misery while a son is the protector of family. Maitrayani Samhita mentions three evils- liquor, women and dice. Polygamy and Polyandry became frequent. However, some of the women had got higher education.

4. In this period , Pratiloma vivaha was not permitted.

3. ECONOMY:

i) Agriculture became the chief economic activity. They produced wheat, rice, barley, beans and sesame.

ii) New occupational groups emerged such as fisherman , washerman, dyers, doorkeepers and footmen.

iii) Tin, silver and iron were now known to the people

iv) Merchants were organised into guilds, as indicated by the term Ganas (corporations) and Sresthins (eldermen).

4. RELIGION:

1. Rituals became more important in the cult of sacrifice.

2. Prajapati became the supreme God. Vishnu was conceived as the preserver and protector of people.

3. Pushan, responsible for well being of cattle, became the God of Sudras.

4. Towards the end of the Vedic Age, a section of society began to resent the priestly domination.

5. LITERATURE

i) The word Veda comes from the word Vid (knowledge or to know).

ii) Vedic texts are divided between Sruti (based on hearing) and Smriti (based on memory).

iii) Vedas –there are four Vedas viz. Rig Veda, Sama Veda , Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda . Vedas are divided into Samhitas.

iv) Epics – (a) Mahabharatha- was written by Ved Vyas , it originally consisted of 880 verses which raised to 1,00,000 verses.

(b) Ramayana - was written by Valmiki, it originally consisted of 6,000 verses which raised to 24,000 verses.

• Varna system is the social stratification based on the caste(Varna). Varna system is the social class divisions made on the Vedic period. There are four basic categories defined under this system: Brahmins(priests, teachers, intellectuals), Kshatriyas(warriors,kings, administrators),Vaishyas(traders, merchants) and Shudras(labourers, artisans)

• The purpose of Varna system was to divide the responsibilities among various people and to avoid conflicts with business and encroachment in respective duties. Specific tasks were assigned to every particular Varna citizen.

• Varna system was set up for the smooth working of the society but it took the shape of what is today known as Caste System. Caste system gave birth to various social evils. It made people Orthodox and narrow-minded. The non-cooperation between the castes gradually led to the foreign attacks by the invaders in our country.

• Caste system also led to child marriages.

• Brahmins enjoyed undue privileges whereas Shudra were treated mercilessly.

• Thus, an urge to change such social system based on rigidity of caste system was desirable.

The main cause for the rise of both Jainism and Buddhism was the religious turmoil in India.The complex rituals and sacrifices that dominated the Vedic era started to suffocate the common people. 6th century B.C., Mahavir was born to the king Siddhartha and Lichchavi. His original name was Vardhaman which later became Mahavira. He was born in 599B.C. He was married to the princess named Yashodha and a daughter was also born to them. At the age of thirty, his parents died and with the permission of his elder brother, he renounced the world.

Jainism emphasizes to follow 'Tri-ratna' (3 principles):

1. Right faith

2. Right knowledge

3. Right conduct

Jainism is the outcome of the teachings of 24 Tirthankaras, Mahavir being the 24 Tirthankara. This new religious perspective abandoned the ritual, domestic and social action and paved a way towards the attainment of spiritual enlightenment. Jainism extensively talks about the concept of 'Nirvana'- freedom of soul from bondages.

• Gautama Buddha was the founder of Buddhism. Buddha is known by various names such as Tathagata, Sakhyamuni etc. Buddha means the learned, wise or intelligent and Tathagata is the one who knows the truth.

• Buddha(birth name Siddhartha)was the son of the king Suddhodhana and queen Mahamaya.He was bought up by his step mother Prajapati Gautami thus Siddhartha was known as Gautama.He was born at Lumbini village, a few miles from Kapilavastu. He was married at the age of sixteen to Yashodhara and at the age of twenty nine, a son was born to them and he was named Rahula. This life however didn't interest him. He was agitated by the fundamental questions of life. He was moved by the misery of the people. The popular story of how Gautama was horrified at the sight of an old man, a diseased person and a dead body is heart wrenching. These four sights made him realize the hollowness of worldly pleasure. Thus, he left his family and kingdom behind at the age of 29. He wandered from place to place in search of truth. He first reached Vaishali where he learnt the Sankya philosophy and the moved to Rajagriha and learnt the art of meditation. After forty-nine days he attained supreme knowledge and insight. This is known as the “Great Enlightenment” and since then he came to be known as the “Buddha” or the “Enlightened one” or “Tathagat”. The Pipal tree under which he attained wisdom came to be known as the “Bodhi Tree”. Then the place of his meditation was famous as “Bodhagaya”.

• He preached his followers the 4 noble Truths:

1. The world is full of suffering

2. Cause of suffering are thirst, desire, attachment etc., which leads to worldly existence.

3. Suffering can be destroyed by the destruction of thirst, desire etc.

4. That the way leads to the destruction of suffering.

• He gave the famous 8- fold path of Buddhism:

1. Right views

2. Right aspirations

3. Right speech

4. Right action

5. Right living

6. Right mindfulness

7. Right efforts

8. Right contemplation

• One of the important teachings of Buddha is Ahimsa(non-violence)

• Buddha neither accepts or rejects the existence of God. He kept himself away from the theoretical discussion on God.

• Buddha strongly opposed Varna order or the caste system. He thus won the support of lower caste because of his opposition to caste system.

• The missionary activities of the Buddhist Sangha were responsible for the growth of Buddhism. The monks spread the message of Buddha in Mathura, Ujjain, Avanti, Kaushambi, Kanauj etc.

• The important cause for the decline Buddhism was the decline of Buddhist Sanghas. The Sanghas became centres of corruption.

The Magadha Empire came into existence when the four Mahajanapada- Magadha, Kosala, Vatsa and Avanti were engaged in the struggle for supremacy from the 6th Century BC to 4th Century BC. Ultimately, Magadha emerged as the most powerful and prosperous kingdom in North India.

Jarasandha and Brihadratha were the founders of Magadha but the growth started under the Haryankas, expansion took place under the Sisungas and Nandas and reached its zenith point under the Mauryas.

Haryanka Dynasty

There were three important kings in the Haryanka Dynasty- Bimbisara, Ajatashatru and Udayin. Girivraja was the earliest capital of Magadha and later shifted to Rajagriha.

Bimbisara (Soniya or Sreniya)

He was the first king to have a standing army and contemporary to the Buddha.2. He was the first who started matrimonial alliances to strengthen its position as a king after defeating Brahmadatta (Anga King).3. He married the Mahakosaladevi (princes of Koshala and sister of Prasenjit), Lichchhavi princess Chellana and Khema (Princes of Madra clan of Punjab).4. Marriage relations with the different princely families gave enormous diplomatic prestige and paved the way for the expansion of Magadha western and northward.5. Pukkusati came into his court as the ambassador of the Gandhara ruler of Taxila.6. He sent his personal physician Jivak(son of Salavati), to his rival Chanda Pradyota Mahasena of Ujjain to cure him of jaundice.

Ajatshatru (Kunika)

He was the son of Chellana and Bimbisara who occupied the throne by killing his father.2. He was a contemporary of both Mahavira and Gautama Buddha.3. He was also instrumental in convening the First Buddhist Council at Rajagriha soon after the death of Buddha.

Udayin

1. Son and successor of Ajatshatru

2. Built the fort on the confluence of the Ganga and the Son river at Patliputra (now Patna)

3. He was murder at the instigation of the king of Avanti, Palak. He was succeeded by weak successors- Anuruddha, Munda and Naga-Dasak.

Sisunaga Dynasty

Sisunaga was the minister of the Naga-Dasak and was elected by the people.2. He destroyed the Prayota Dynasty of Avanti that ended the 100 years old rivalry between Magadha and Avanti.3. Kakasoka (Kakvarin) succeeded Sisunaga.4. He transferred the capital from Vaishali to Patliputra and patronaged the Second Buddhist Council at Vaishali.

Reason behind the Rise of Magadha

1. Flourish due to geographical location and both Rajgir and Pataliputra located at strategic locations.

2. Abundance of natural resources especially iron which made them equipped with effective weapons.

3. Due to agricultural produce because the region was situated at fertile gangetic plain.

4. Rise of town and use of metallic money boosted trade and commerce.

5. Unorthodox character of Magadha society.

Magadha was one of the sixteen Mahajanapadas in ancient India and roughly corresponds to the modern districts of Bihar and West Bengal.

• It is said that Ashoka’s pacific policy destroyed the Maurya empire, but this is not true.

• On the contrary, Ashoka has a number of achievements to his credit. He was certainly a great missionary ruler in the history of the ancient world.

• He enthusiastically worked with great devotion for his mission and achieved a great deal at home and abroad.

• Ashoka brought about the political unification of the country. He bound it further by one dharma, one language, and virtually one script called Brahmi which was used in most of his inscriptions. In unifying the country he respected such non-Indian scripts as Kharoshthi, Aramaic, and Greek. His inscriptions appear not only in different types of the Indian languages like Prakrit, but also in Greek and particularly in Aramaic which was a Semitic language of ancient Syria.

• His multi-script and multi-lingual inscriptions enabled him to contact literate people. Ashoka followed a tolerant religious policy, not attempting to foist his Buddhist faith on his subjects; on the contrary, he made gifts to non-Buddhist and even anti- Buddhist sects. Ashoka was fired with a zeal for missionary activity. He deputed officials in the far-flung parts of the empire. He helped administration and promoted cultural interaction between the developed Gangetic basin and distant backward provinces. The material culture, characteristic of the heart of the empire, spread to Kalinga, the lower Deccan, and northern Bengal.

• Above all, Ashoka is important in history for his policy of peace, non- aggression, and cultural conquest. He had no model in early Indian history for the pursuit of such a policy; nor was there any comparable example elsewhere except in Egypt where Akhnaton had pursued a pacific policy in the fourteenth century BC. But Ashoka was not aware of his Egyptian predecessor.

• Although Kautilya advised the king to be always intent on physical conquest, Ashoka followed quite the reverse policy. He asked his successors to give up the policy of conquest and aggression, followed by the Magadhan princes till the Kalinga war, and counseled them to adopt a policy of peace sorely needed after a period of aggressive wars lasting for two centuries. He consistently adhered to his policy, for though he possessed sufficient resources and maintained a huge army, he did not wage any war after the conquest of Kalinga. In this sense, Ashoka was certainly far ahead of his day and generation.

• However, Ashoka’s policy did not have any lasting impact on his viceroys and vassals, who declared themselves independent in their respective areas after the king retired in 232 BC. Similarly, the policy did not succeed in converting his neighbours, who swooped on the north-western frontier of his empire within thirty years of Ashoka’s giving up power in 232 BC.

The Mauryan Empire: Administration

The Mauryan Empire was divided into four provinces with the imperial capital at Pataliputra. From Ashokan Edicts, the name of the four provincial capitals were Tosali (in the east), Ujjain in the west, Suvarnagiri (in the south), and Taxila (in the north). At the centre of the structure was the king who had the power to enact laws. Kautilya advises the King to promulgate dharma when the social order based on the Varnas and Ashrams (stages in life) perishes.

The Mauryan Empire was divided into four provinces with the imperial capital at Pataliputra. From Ashokan edicts, the names of the four provincial capitals were Tosali (in the east), Ujjain in the west, Suvarnagiri (in the south), and Taxila (in the north). According to Megasthenese, the empire exercised a military of 600,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry, and 9,000 war elephants. For the purpose of internal and external security, there was a vast espionage system there to keep a watch on the officials and messengers went to and fro. Kings appointed officials to collect taxes from herders, farmers, traders and craftsmen etc.

The king was the centre of administrative superstructure and king used to select ministers and high officials. Administrative structure was as follows:

King assisted by Mantriparishad (council of ministers) whose members included Mantriparishad Adhyaksha and below him was as following:

Yuvaraj: The crown prince

Purohita: The chief priest

The Senapati: The commander in chief

Amatya: Civil servants and few other ministers.

Scholars suggest that Mauryan Empire was further divided into various departments with important officials:

Revenue department:- Important officials: Sannidhata: Chief treasury, Samaharta: collector general of revenue.

Military department: Megasthenes mentions a committee with six subcommittees for coordinating military activity of these, one looked after the navy, the second managed transport and provisions, and the third was responsible for foot-soldiers, the fourth for horses, the fifth for chariots and the sixth for elephants.

Espionage Department: Mahamatyapasarpa controlled Gudhapurushas (secret agents)

Police department: The jail was known as Bandhangara and it was different from lock-up called Charaka. There were police head quarters in all principal centres.

Provincial and Local Administration: important officials: Pradeshika: modern district magistrates, Sthanika: tax collecting officer under Pradeshika, Durgapal: governor of fort, Antapala: Governor of frontier, Akshapatala: Accountant general, Lipikaras: Scribes, Gopas: responsible for accountants etc.

Municipal Administration: Important officials: Nagaraka: incharge of city administration, Sita- Adhyaksha: Supervisor of agriculture, samastha-Adhyaksha: superintendent of market, Navadhyaksha: Superintendent of ships, Sulka Adhyaksha: Collector of tolls, Loh Adhyaksha: Superintendent of Iron, Nagaradhyaksha: Superintendent of mines and Pauthavadhyaksha: Superintendent of weight and measures etc.

Megasthenes referred for six committees of which five were to look after Pataliputra’s administration. Industries, Foreigners, Registration of birth and deaths, Trade, Manufacture and sale of goods and Collection of sales tax were under the control of administration.

The Gupta Empire was an ancient Indian Empire existing from the mid 3rd century CE to 590 CE. It is still one of the greatest and largest empires of Bhāratavarṣa (Sanskrit term for 'Ancient India'), founded by Maharaja Sri Gupta, who was later succeeded by King Ghatotkacha. At its zenith, the Gupta Empire occupied an area of around 35,00,000 square kilometres. Owing to the great achievements and huge progress made in science, technology, arts and literature, the Gupta Empire came to be known as the Golden Age of India and the period of Renaissance.

• SOURCES OF GUPTA EMPIRE:

• The Mehrauli Iron Pillar Inscription and Allahabad Pillar Inscription has the achievements of Chandragupta I inscribed in them.

• The literary works like Devichandraguptam and the Mudhrakshasam written by Visakhadatta contains extensive explanations of the might of the Guptas.

• The Ashokan Pillar Inscription composed by Harisena says about Samudragupta and his personality, conquests and military campaigns in the north of the subcontinent.

• GUPTA KINGS AND THEIR ADMINISTRATION:

The Gupta kings used to assume titles like, Maharajadhiraja, Parameswara, Samrat, Chakravartin, etc., to give an impression of their strength and mightiness. Chandragupta I, the third king of the Empire, assumed the title of Maharajadhiraja, meaning 'King of kings' due to his extensive conquests. Samudragupta is regarded as the most powerful ruler of the Gupta period owing to his extensive military campaigns and defeat he inflicted on both Northern and Southern kings of various kingdoms to annex and extend his own empire. Samudragupta is also called the Kaviraja for his ability to compose music and poetry. He was also highly intellectual and was a Vaishnavaite tolerant to other religions. He was succeeded by his son Chandragupta II, who assumed the title of Vikramaditya, under whom the empire made great cultural progress owing to his policies in local and international trade and issuing of a variety of gold coins.

• ART, CULTURE, LITERATURE AND ARCHITECTURE OF THE GUPTA PERIOD:

Some scholars consider the Gupta Period as the Age of Renaissance due to the immense all-round progress made by the empire under different kings. Samudragupta issued eight different types of gold coins while his son and successor, Chandragupta II issued a variety of gold, silver and copper coins. Both Nagara and Dravidian style of architecture was encouraged. The Gupta kings were great patronisers of Sanskrit. Prose, poetry, lyrics and drama were composed in Sanskrit, Nagari and Brahmi scripts. Chandragupta Vikramaditya had nine Navratnas in his court. These Navratnas were known as ‘nine gems’ who were court historians and composed many great pieces of literature. Kalidasa, one of the most popular Navratna, composed Shakuntala. Aryabhatta, the great mathematician and astronomer, was the first to write treatises on solar and lunar eclipses and about maths and astronomy.

Apart from these, many great strides in medicine, astrology, weather, architecture, marriage, geography, etc., were taken during the Gupta period.

• CONDITION OF WOMEN AND CASTE DURING THE GUPTA PERIOD:

Large-scale land grants to the brahmanas suggest that the brahmana supremacy increased in Gupta times.The Guptas, who probably were originally vaishyas, came to be looked upon as kshatriyas by the brahmanas.The brahmanas presented the Gupta kings as possessing god-like attributes.All this helped to legitimize the position of the Gupta princes, who became great supporters of the brahmanical order. The brahmanas accumulated wealth on account of the numerous land grants made to them and therefore claimed many privileges, which are listed in the Narada Smriti, the lawbook of Narada, a work of about the fifth century.The castes proliferated into numerous sub-castes as a result of two factors. A large number of foreigners had been assimilated into Indian society, and each group of foreigners was considered a kind of caste. As the foreigners largely came as conquerors they were given the status of kshatriya in society.The Hunas, who came to India towards the close of the fifth century, eventually came to be recognized as one of the thirty-six clans of the Rajputs. Even now some Rajputs bear the title Hun. The other reason for the increase in the number of castes was the absorption of many tribal people into brahmanical society through the process of land grants.The tribal chiefs were assigned a respectable origin, but most of their ordinary kinsmen were assigned a low origin, and every tribe became a kind of caste in its new incarnation. This process continued in some ways up to the present. The position of shudras improved during this period. They were now permitted to listen to recitations of the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, and the Puranas. The epics and the Puranas represented the kshatriya tradition, whose myths and legends won loyalty to the social order.The shudras could also worship a new god called Krishna and were also permitted to perform certain domestic rites which naturally meant fees for the priests. This can all be linked to some improvement in the economic status of the shudras. From the seventh century onwards, they were mainly represented as agriculturists; in the earlier period, they generally figured as servants, slaves, and agricultural labourers working for the three higher varnas.

However, during this period, the number of untouchables increased, especially the chandalas. The chandalas entered society as early as the fifth century BC. By the fifth century AD, their numbers had become so enormous and their disabilities so glaring that they attracted the attention of the Chinese pilgrim Fa-hsien. He informs us that the chandalas live outside the village and deal in meat and flesh.Whenever they enter the town, they strike a piece of wood to announce their arrival so that others may avoid them. In the Gupta period, like the shudras, women were also allowed to listen to the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, and the Puranas, and were advised to worship Krishna. However, women of the higher orders did not have access to independent sources of livelihood in pre-Gupta and Gupta times.

The fact that women of the two lower varnas were free to earn their livelihood, which gave them considerable freedom, but this was denied to women of the upper varnas. It was argued that the vaishya and shudra women take to agricultural operations and domestic services and are therefore outside the control of their husbands. In contrast, by Gupta times, members of the higher orders came to acquire more and more land which made them more polygamous and more property-minded.In a patriarchal setup, they began to treat women as items of property, to such a degree that a woman was expected to follow her husband to the next world. The first example of the immolation of a widow after the death of her husband occurred during the Gupta period in AD 510. However, some post-Gupta law-books held that a woman could remarry if her husband was dead, destroyed, impotent, had become a renouncer, or had been excommunicated.The principal reason for the subordination of women of the upper varnas was their complete dependence on men for their livelihood, and lack of proprietary rights. However, the oldest Smritis or law-books state that gifts of jewellery, ornaments, garments, and similar other presents made to the bride on the occasion of her marriage were considered her property. Gupta and post-Gupta law-books substantially enlarged the scope of these gifts.According to them, presents received by the bride not only from her parents’ side but also from her parents-in-law at marriage and on other occasions formed the stridhana. Katyayana, a lawmaker of the sixth century, held that a woman could sell and mortgage her immovable property along with her stridhana. This clearly implies that women received shares in landed property according to this lawmaker, but generally a daughter was not allowed to inherit landed property in the patriarchal communities of India.Niyoga, according to which a younger brother or kinsman could marry the wife of the elder brother after the latter’s death, was practised by the brahmanas and kshatriyas in Vedic times, but was not allowed to them by the law-books of Gupta and earlier times. Similarly, widow remarriage was not allowed to members of the higher orders, but the shudras could practise both niyoga or levirate and widow remarriage.

The Indo-Greeks:

A series of invasions began in about 200 BC. The first to cross the Hindu Kush were the Greeks, who ruled Bactria, or Bahlika, situated south of the Oxus river in the area covered by north Afghanistan. The invaders came one after another, but some of them ruled simultaneously.

One important cause of the invasions was the weakness of the Seleucid empire that had been established in Bactria and the adjoining areas of Iran called Parthia. On account of growing pressure from the Scythian tribes, the later Greek rulers were unable to sustain power in this area. With the construction of the Chinese wall, the Scythians were pushed back from the Chinese border. They therefore turned their attention towards the neighbouring Greeks and Parthians.

Pushed by the Scythian tribes, the Bactrian Greeks were forced to invade India. The successors of Ashoka were too weak to stem the tide of foreign invasions that began during this period. The first to invade India were the Greeks, who are called the Indo- Greeks or Indo-Bactrians. In the beginning of the second century BC, the Indo-Greeks occupied a large part of north-western India, a much larger area than that conquered by Alexander. It is said that they pushed forward as far as Ayodhya and Pataliputra.

However, the Greeks failed to establish united rule in India. Two Greek dynasties simultaneously ruled northwestern India on parallel lines. The most famous Indo-Greek ruler was Menander (165-45 BC), also known as Milinda. He had his capital at Sakala (modern Sialkot) in the Punjab; and invaded the Ganga-Yamuna doab. He had a great many cities in his dominions including Sakala and Mathura. He is known for the variety and wide spread of coins in his dominions. He was converted to Buddhism by Nagasena, who is also known as Nagarjuna.

Menander asked Nagasena many questions relating to Buddhism. These questions and Nagasena answers were recorded in the form of a book known as Milinda Panho or the Questions of Milinda. Indo-Greek rule is important in the history of India because of the large number of coins that the Greeks issued. The Indo-Greeks were the first rulers in India to issue coins that can be definitively attributed to particular kings. This is not possible in the case of the early punch-marked coins, which cannot be assigned with certainty to any particular dynasty.

The Indo-Greeks were also the first to issue gold coins in India, and these increased in number under the Kushans. Greek rule introduced features of Hellenistic art in the north-west frontier of India, but this was not purely Greek but the outcome of Greek contact with non-Greek conquered peoples after Alexander's death. The best example of this was Gandhara art.

The Kushans:

The Parthians were followed by the Kushans, who are also called Yuechis or Tocharians. The Tocharians were considered to be the same as the Scythians. The Kushans were one of the five clans into which the Yuchi tribe was divided. A nomadic people from the steppes of north Central Asia living in the neighbourhood of China, the Kushans first occupied Bactria or north Afghanistan where they displaced the Shakas. Gradually they moved to the Kabul valley and seized Gandhara by crossing the Hindu Kush, replacing the rule of the Greeks and Parthians in these areas. They eventually established their authority over the lower Indus basin and the greater part of the Gangetic basin.

Their empire extended from the Oxus to the Ganges, from Khorasan in Central Asia to Pataliputra in Bihar. A substantial part of Central Asia now included the Commonwealth of Independent States (in the former USSR), a portion of Iran, a portion of Afghanistan, almost the whole of Pakistan, and almost the whole of northern India were brought under one rule by the Kushans. Because of this, the Kushan empire in India is sometimes called a Central Asian empire.

In any case, the empire created a unique opportunity for the interaction of peoples and cultures, and the process gave rise to a new type of culture which embraced nine modern countries. There were two successive dynasties of Kushans. The first was founded by a house of chiefs who were called Kadphises and who ruled for twenty- eight years from about ad 50 under two kings. The first was Kadphises I, who issued coins south of the Hindu Kush, minting copper coins in imitation of Roman coins. The second king was Kadphises II, who issued a large number of gold money and spread his kingdom east of the Indus.

The house of Kadphises was succeeded by that of Kanishka. Its kings extended Kushan power over upper India and the lower Indus basin. The early Kushan kings issued numerous gold coins with a higher degree of metallic purity than is found in the Gupta gold coins.

Although the gold coins of the Kushans are found mainly west of the Indus, their inscriptions are distributed not only in north-western India and Sindh but also in Mathura, Shravasti, Kaushambi, and Varanasi. Hence, besides the Ganga— Yamuna doab they had established their authority in the greater part of the middle Gangetic basin. Kushan coins, inscriptions, constructions, and pieces of sculpture found in Mathura show that it was their second capital in India, the first being Purushapura or Peshawar, where Kanishka erected a monastery and a huge stupa or relic tower which excited the wonder of foreign travellers.

Kanishka was the most famous Kushan ruler. Although outside the borders of India, he seems to have suffered defeat at the hands of the Chinese, he is known to history for two reasons. First, he started an era in AD 78, which is now known as the Shaka era and is used by the Government of India. Secondly, Kanishka extended his wholehearted patronage to Buddhism. He held a Buddhist council in Kashmir, where the doctrines of the Mahayana form of Buddhism were finalized.

Kanishka was also a great patron of art and architecture. Kanishka’s successors continued to rule in north-western India till about AD 230, and some of them bore a typical Indian name such as Vasudeva. The Kushan empire in Afghanistan and in the area west of the Indus was supplanted in the mid-third century by the Sassanian power which originated in Iran. However, Kushan principalities continued to exist in India for about a century. The Kushan authority seems to have lingered in the Kabul valley, Kapisa, Bactria, Khorezm, and Sogdiana (coterminous with Bukhara and Samarkand in Central Asia) in the third-fourth centuries.

Many Kushan coins, inscriptions, and terracottas have been found in these areas. This is especially so at a place called Toprak-Kala in Khorezm, situated south of the Aral Sea on the Oxus, where a huge Kushan palace of the third—fourth centuries has been unearthed. It housed an administrative archive containing inscriptions and documents written in Aramaic script and the Khorezmian language.

• The young 16 old Harsh was consequent crowned the new ruler. He first united the kingdoms of kannauj, bihar, Bengal, odisha under his command.

• He belonged to the Vardhana Dynasty

• Harsha ruled for 41 years and with his passing away the idea of single Kingdom ruling north India disintegrated.

• He is considered to be the last ruler who ruled over india before the foreign invasions have begun.