Robert K. Merron is Professor of Sociology and Acting Director of the Bureau of Applied Social Research, Columbia University. His most recent book is Mass Persuasion (1946).

THE SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECY 

By ROBERT K. MERTON

in:  THE ANTIOCH REVIEW

IN a series of works seldom consulted outside the academic fraternity, W. I. Thomas, the dean of American sociologists, set forth a theorem basic to the social sciences: “If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences.” Were the Thomas theorem and its implications more widely known more men would understand more of the workings of our society. Though it lacks the sweep and precision of a Newtonian theorem, it possesses the same gift of relevance, being instructively ap- plicable to many, if indeed not most, social processes. “If men define situations as real, they are real in their consequences,” wrote Professor Thomas. The suspicion that he was driving at a crucial point becomes all the more insistent when we note that essentially the same theorem had been repeatedly set forth by disciplined and observant minds long before Thomas. When we find such otherwise discrepant minds as the redoubtable Bishop Bossuet in his passionate seventeenth-century defense of Catholic orthodoxy; the ironic Mandeville in his eighteenth-century allegory honeycombed with observations on the paradoxes of human society; the irascible genius Marx in his revision of Hegel’s theory of historical change; the seminal Freud in works which have perhaps gone further than any others of his day toward modifying man’s outlook on man; and the erudite, dogmatic, and occasionally sound Yale professor, William Gra- ham Sumner, who lives on as the Karl Marx of the middle classes—when we find this mixed company (and I select from a longer if less distinguished list) agreeing on the truth and the pertinence of what is substantially the Thomas theorem, we may conclude that perhaps it’s worth our attention as well. To what, then, are Thomas and Bossuet, Mandeville, Marx, Freud and Sumner directing our attention?

The first part of the theorem provides an unceasing reminder that men respond not only to the objective features of a situation, but also, and at times primarily, to the meaning this situation has for them. And once they have assigned some meaning to the situation, their consequent behavior and some of the consequences of that behavior are determined by the ascribed meaning. But this is still rather abstract, and abstractions have a way of becoming unintelligible if they are not occasionally tied to concrete data. What is a case in point? It is the year 1932. The Last National Bank is a flourishing institu- tion. A large part of its resources is liquid without being watered. Cart- wright Millingville has ample reason to be proud of the banking insti- tution over which he presides. Until Black Wednesday. As he enters his bank, he notices that business is unusually brisk. A little odd, that, since the men at the A.M.O.K. steel plant and the K.O.M.A. mattress factory are not usually paid until Saturday. Yet here are two dozen men, obviously from the factories, queued up in front of the tellers’ cages. As he turns into his private office, the president muses rather compassionately: “Hope they haven’t been laid off in midweek. They should be in the shop at this hour.” But speculations of this sort have never made for a thriving bank, and Millingville turns to the pile of documents upon his desk. His precise signature is affixed to fewer than a score of papers when he is disturbed by the absence of something familiar and the intrusion of something alien. The low discreet hum of bank business has given way to a strange and annoying stridency of many voices. A situation has been defined as real. And that is the beginning of what ends as Black Wednesday—the last Wednesday, it might be noted, of the Last National Bank. Cartwright Millingville had never heard of the Thomas theorem. But he had no difficulty in recognizing its workings. He knew that, despite the comparative liquidity of the bank’s assets, a rumor of insolvency, once believed by enough depositors, would result in the insolvency of the bank. And by the close of Black Wednesday—and Blacker Thursday—when the long lines of anxious depositors, each frantically seeking to salvage his own, grew to longer lines of even more anxious depositors, it turned out that he was right. The stable financial structure of the bank had depended upon one set of definitions of the situation: belief in the validity of the interlocking system of economic promises men live by. Once depositors had defined the situation otherwise, once they questioned the possibility of having these promises fulfilled, the consequences of this unreal definition was real enough. A familiar type-case, this, and one doesn’t need the Thomas theorem to understand how it happened—not, at least, if one is old enough to have voted for Franklin Roosevelt in 1932. But with the aid of the theorem the tragic history of Millingville’s bank can perhaps be converted into a sociological parable which may help us understand not only what happened to hundreds of banks in the ’30’s but also what happens to the relations between Negro and white, between Protestant and Catholic and Jew in these days. The parable tells us that public definitions of a situation (prophecies or predictions) become an integral part of the situation and thus affect subsequent developments. This is peculiar to human affairs. It is not found in the world of nature. Predictions of the return of Halley’s comet do not influence its orbit. But the rumored insolvency of Millingville’s bank did affect the actual outcome. The prophecy of collapse led to its own fulfillment. So common is the pattern of the self-fulfilling prophecy that each of us has his favored specimen. Consider the case of the examination neu- rosis. Convinced that he is destined to fail, the anxious student devotes more time to worry than to study and then turns in a poor examination. The initially fallacious anxiety is transformed into an entirely justified fear. Or it is believed that war between two nations is “inevitable.” Actuated by this conviction, representatives of the two nations become progressively alienated, apprehensively countering each “offensive” move of the other with a “defensive” move of their own. Stockpiles of arma- ments, raw materials, and armed men grow larger and eventually. the anticipation of war helps create the actuality. The self-fulfilling prophecy is, in the beginning, a false definition of the situation evoking a new behavior which makes the originally false conception come true. The specious validity of the self-fulfilling prophecy perpetuates a reign of error. For the prophet will cite the actual course of events as proof that he was right from the very beginning. (Yet we know that Millingville’s bank for many years had not the misleading rumor created the very conditions of its own fulfillment.) Such are the perversities of social logic. It is the self-fulfilling prophecy which goes far toward explaining the dynamics of ethnic and racial conflict in the America of today. That this is the case, at least for relations between Negroes and whites, may be gathered from the fifteen hundred pages which make up Gunnar Myrdal’s An American Dilemma. That the self-fulfilling prophecy may have even more general bearing upon the relations between ethnic groups than Myrdal has indicated is the thesis of the considerably briefer discussion

II 

As a result of their failure to comprehend the operation of the self-fulfilling prophecy, many Americans of good will are (sometimes reluctantly) brought to retain enduring ethnic and racial prejudices. They experience these beliefs, not as prejudices, not as prejudgments, but as irresistible products of their own observation. “The facts of the case” permit them no other conclusion. Thus our fair-minded white citizen strongly supports a policy of excluding Negroes from his labor union. His views are, of course, based not upon prejudice, but upon the cold hard facts. And the facts seem clear enough. Negroes, “lately from the nonindustrial South, are undis- ciplined in traditions of trade unionism and the art of collective bargain- ing.” The Negro is a strikebreaker. The Negro, with his “low standard of living,” rushes in to take jobs at less than prevailing wages. The Negro is, in short, “a traitor to the working class,” and should manifestly be excluded from union organizations. So run the facts of the case as seen by our tolerant but hard-headed union member, innocent of any under- standing of the self-fulfilling prophecy as a basic process of society. Our unionist fails to see, of course, that he and his kind have produced the very “facts” which he observes. For by defining the situation which follows.’

1 Counterpart of the self-fulfilling prophecy is the “suicidal prophecy” which so alters human behavior from what would have been its course had the prophecy not been made, that it fails to be borne out. The prophecy destroys itself. This important type is not considered here. (For examples of both types of social prophecy, see R. M. Maclver, The More Perfect Union (Macmillan, 1948); for a general statement, see R. K. Merton, “The Unanticipated Consequences of Purposive Social Action,” American Sociological Review, 1936, I: 894-904.)

as one in which Negroes are held to be incorrigibly at odds with prin- ciples of unionism and by excluding Negroes from unions, he invited a series of consequences which indeed made it difficult if not impossible for many Negroes to avoid the role of scab. Out of work after World War I, and kept out of unions, thousands of Negroes could not resist strikebound employers who held a door invitingly open upon a world of jobs from which they were otherwise excluded. History creates its own test of the theory of self-fulfilling prophecies. That Negroes were strikebreakers because they were excluded from unions (and from a large range of jobs) rather than excluded because they were strikebreakers can be seen from the virtual disappearance of Negroes as scabs in industries where they have gained admission to unions in the last decades. The application of the Thomas theorem also suggests how the tragic, often vicious, circle of self-fulfilling prophecies can be broken. The initial definition of the situation which has set the circle in motion must be abandoned. Only when the original assumption is questioned and a new definition of the situation introduced, does the consequent flow of events give the lie to the assumption. Only then does the belief no longer father the reality. But to question these deep-rooted definitions of the situation is no simple act of the will. The will, or, for that matter, good will, cannot be turned on and off like a faucet. Social intelligence and good will are themselves products of distinct social forces. They are not brought into being by mass propaganda and mass education, in the usual sense of these terms so dear to the sociological panaceans. In the social realm, no more than in the psychological realm, do false ideas quietly vanish when con- fronted with the truth. One does not expect a paranoiac to abandon his hard-won distortions and delusions upon being informed that they are altogether groundless. If psychic ills could be cured merely by the dis- semination of truth, the psychiatrists of this country would be suffering from technological unemployment rather than from overwork. Nor will a continuing “educational campaign” itself destrcy racial prejudice and discrimination. This is not a particularly popular position. The appeal to “education” as a cure-all for the most varied social problems is rooted deep in the mores of America. Yet it is nonetheless illusory for all that. For how

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would this program of racial education proceed? Who is to do the edu- cating? The teachers in our communities? But, in some measure like many other Americans, the teachers share the very prejudices they are being urged to combat. And when they don’t, aren’t they being asked to serve as conscientious martyrs in the cause of educational utopianism? How long would be the tenure of an elementary school teacher in Ala- bama or Mississippi or Georgia who attempted meticulously to disabuse his young pupils of the racial beliefs they acquired at home? Education may serve as an operational adjunct but not as the chief basis for any but excruciatingly slow change in the prevailing patterns of race relations. To understand further why educational campaigns cannot be counted on to eliminate prevailing ethnic hostilities, we must examine the opera- tion of “in-groups” and “out-groups” in our society. Ethnic out-groups, to adopt Sumner’s useful bit of sociological jargon, consist of all those who are believed to differ significantly from “ourselves” in terms of nationality, race, or religion. Counterpart of the ethnic out-group is of course the ethnic in-group, constituted by those who “belong.” There is nothing fixed or eternal about the lines separating the in-group from out- groups. As situations change, the lines of separation change. For a large number of white Americans, Joe Louis is a member of an out-group— when the situation is defined in racial terms. On another occasion, when Louis defeated the nazified Schmeling, many of these same white Amer- icans acclaimed him as a member of the (national) in-group. National loyalty took precedence over racial separatism. These abrupt shifts in group boundaries sometimes prove embarrassing. Thus, when Negro- Americans ran away with the honors in the Olympic games held in Berlin, the Nazis, pointing to the second-class citizenship assigned Negroes in various regions of this country, denied that the United States had really won the games, since the Negro athletes were by our own admission “not full-fledged” Americans. And what could Bilbo or Rankin say to that? Under the benevolent guidance of the dominant in-group, ethnic out- groups are continuously subjected to a lively process of prejudice which, I think, goes far toward vitiating mass education and mass propaganda for ethnic tolerance. This is the process whereby “in-group virtues become out-group vices,” to paraphrase a remark by the sociologist Donald Young. Or, more colloquially and perhapsTHE SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECY

the “damned-if-you-do and damned-if-you-don’t” process in ethnic and racial relations. Ul To discover that ethnic out-groups are damned if they do embrace the values of white Protestant society and damned if they don’t, we have only to turn to one of the in-group culture heroes, examine the qualities with which he is endowed by biographers and popular belief, and thus distill the qualities of mind and action and character which are generally regarded as altogether admirable. Periodic public opinion polls are not needed to justify the selection of Abe Lincoln as the culture hero who most fully embodies the cardinal American virtues. As the Lynds point out in Middletown, the people of that typical small city allow George Washington alone to join Lincoln as the greatest of Americans. He is claimed as their very own by almost as many well-to-do Republicans as by less well-to-do Democrats. Even the inevitable schoolboy knows that Lincoln was thrifty, hard- working, eager for knowledge, ambitious, devoted to the rights of the average man, and eminently successful in climbing the ladder of oppor- tunity from the lowermost rung of laborer to the respectable heights of merchant and lawyer. (We need follow his dizzying ascent no further.) If one did not know that these attributes and achievements are num- bered high among the values of middle-class America, one would soon discover it by glancing through the Lynds’ account of “The Middletown Spirit.” For there we find the image of the Great Emancipator fully re- flected in the values in which Middletown believes. And since these are their values, it is not surprising to find the Middletowns of America con- demning and disparaging those individuals and groups who fail, pre- sumably, to exhibit these virtues. If it appears to the white in-group that Negroes are not educated in the same measure as themselves, that they have an “unduly” high proportion of unskilled workers and an “unduly” low proportion of successful business and professional men, that they are thriftless, and so on through the catalogue of middle-class virtue and sin, it is not difficult to understand the charge that the Negro is “inferior” to the white. Sensitized to the workings of the self-fulfilling prophecy, we should be prepared to find that the anti-Negro charges which are not patently false are only speciously true. The allegations are “true” in the Pick-

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wickian sense that we have found self-fulfilling prophecies in general to be true. Thus, if the dominant in-group believes that Negroes are inferior, and sees to it that funds for education are not “wasted on these incom- petents” and then proclaims as final evidence of this inferiority that Negroes have proportionately “only” one-fifth as many college graduates as whites, one can scarcely be amazed by this transparent bit of social legerdemain. Having seen the rabbit carefully though not too adroitly placed in the hat, we can only look askance at the triumphant air with which it is finally produced. (In fact, it is a little embarrassing to note that a larger proportion of Negro than of white high school graduates go on to college; obviously, the Negroes who are hardy enough to scale the high walls of discrimination represent an even more highly selected group than the run-of-the-high-school white population.) So, too, when the gentleman from Mississippi (a state which spends five times as much on the average white pupil as on the average Negro pupil) proclaims the essential inferiority of the Negro by pointing to the per capita ratio of physicians among Negroes as less than one-fourth that of whites, we are impressed more by his scrambled logic than by his pro- found prejudices. So plain is the mechanism of the self-fulfilling prophecy in these instances that only those forever devoted to the victory of senti- ment over fact can take these specious evidences seriously. Yet the spurious evidence often creates a genuine belief. Self-hypnosis through one’s own propaganda is a not infrequent phase of the self-fulfilling prophecy. So much for out-groups being damned if they don’t (apparently) manifest in-group virtues. It is a tasteless bit of ethnocentrism, seasoned with self-interest. But what of the second phase of this process? Can one seriously mean that out-groups are also damned if they do possess these virtues? Precisely. Througha faultlessly bisymmetrical prejudice, ethnic and racial out- groups get it coming and going. The systematic condemnation of the out-grouper continues largely irrespective of what he does. More: through a freakish exercise of capricious judicial logic, the victim is punished for the crime. Superficial appearances notwithstanding, prejudice and dis- crimination aimed at the out-group are not a result of what the out-group does, but are rooted deep in the structure of our society and the social psychology of its members.

200THE SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECY To understand how this happens, we must examine the moral alchemy through which the in-group readily transmutes virtue into vice and vice into virtue, as the occasion may demand. Our studies will proceed by the

We begin with the engagingly simple formula of moral alchemy: the same behavior must be differently evaluated according to the person who exhibits it. For example, the proficient alchemist will at once know that the word “firm” is properly declined as follows: I am firm, Thou art obstinate, He is pigheaded. There are some, unversed in the skills of this science, who will tell you that one and the same term should be applied to all three instances of identical behavior. Such unalchemical nonsense should simply be ignored. With this experiment in mind, we are prepared to observe how the very same behavior undergoes a complete change of evaluation in its transition from the in-group Abe Lincoln to the out-group Abe Cohen or Abe Kurokawa. We proceed systematically. Did Lincoln work far into the night? This testifies that he was industrious, resolute, perseverant, and eager to realize his capacities to the full. Do the out-group Jews or Japanese keep these same hours? This only bears witness to their sweat- shop mentality, their ruthless undercutting of American standards, their unfair competitive practices. Is the in-group hero frugal, thrifty, and sparing? Then the out-group villain is stingy, miserly and penny-pinch- ing. All honor is due the in-group Abe for his having been smart, shrewd, and intelligent and, by the same token, all contempt is owing the out- group Abes for their being sharp, cunning, crafty, and too clever by far. Did the indomitable Lincoln refuse to remain content with a life of work with the hands? Did he prefer to make use of his brain? Then, all praise for his plucky climb up the shaky ladder of opportunity. But, of course, the eschewing of manual work for brain work among the merchants and lawyers of the out-group deserves nothing but censure for a parasitic way of life. Was Abe Lincoln eager to learn the accumulated wisdom of the ages by unending study? The trouble with the Jew is that he’s a greasy grind, with his head always in a book, while decent people are going to a show or a ball game. Was the resolute Lincoln unwilling to limit his standards to those of his provincial community? That is what we should

201THE ANTIOCH REVIEW expect of a man of vision. And if the out-groupers criticize the vulnerable areas in our society, then send ’em back where they came from. Did Lincoln, rising high above his origins, never forget the rights of the com- mon man and applaud the right of workers to strike? This testifies only that, like all real Americans, this greatest of Americans was deathlessly devoted to the cause of freedom. But, as you examine the recent statistics on strikes, remember that these un-American practices are the result of out-groupers pursuing their evil agitation among otherwise contented workers. Once stated, the classical formula of moral alchemy is clear enough. Through the adroit use of these rich vocabularies of encomium and oppro- brium, the in-group readily transmutes its own virtues into others’ vices. But why do so many in-groupers qualify as moral alchemists? Why are so many in the dominant in-group so fully devoted to this continuing experiment in moral transmutation An explanation may be found by putting ourselves at some distance from this country and following the anthropologist Malinowski to the Trobriand Islands. For there we find an instructively similar pattern. Among the Trobrianders, to a degree which Americans, despite Holly- wood and the confession magazines, have apparently not yet approxi- mated, success with women confers honor and prestige on a man. Sexual prowess is a positive value, a moral virtue. But if a rank-and-file Tro- briander has “too much” sexual success, if he achieves “too many” tri- umphs of the heart, an achievement which should of course be limited to the elite, the chiefs or men of power, then this glorious record becomes a scandal and an abomination. The chiefs are quick to resent any personal achievement not warranted by social position. The moral virtues remain virtues only so long as they are jealously confined to the proper in-group. The right activity by the wrong people becomes a thing of contempt, not of honor. For clearly, only in this way, by holding these virtues exclusively to themselves, can the men of power retain their distinction, their prestige, and their power. No wiser procedure could be devised to hold intact a system of social stratification and social power. The Trobrianders can teach us more. For it seems clear that the chiefs have not calculatingly devised this program of entrenchment. Their behavior is spontaneous, unthinking, and immediate. Their resentment of “too much” ambition or “too muchTHE SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECY der is not contrived, it is genuine. It just happens that this prompt emo- tional response to the “misplaced” manifestation of in-group virtues also serves the useful expedient of reinforcing the chiefs’ special claims to the good things of Trobriand life. Nothing could be more remote from the truth and more distorted a reading of the facts than to assume that this conversion of in-group virtues into out-group vices is part of a calculated, deliberate plot of Trobriand chiefs to keep Trobriand commoners in their place. It is merely that the chiefs have been indoctrinated with an appreciation of the proper order of things, and see it as their heavy burden to enforce the mediocrity of others. Nor, in quick revulsion from the culpabilities of the moral alchemists, need we succumb to the equivalent error of simply upending the moral status of the in-group and the out-groups. It is not that Jews and Negroes are one and all angelic while Gentiles and whites are one and all fiendish. It is not that individual virtue will now be found exclusively on the wrong side of the ethnic-racial tracks and individual viciousness on the right side. It is conceivable even that there are as many corrupt and vicious men and women among Negroes and Jews as among Gentile whites. It is only that the ugly fence which encloses the in-group happens to exclude the people who make up the out-groups from being treated with the decency ordinarily accorded human beings.

We have only to look at the consequences of this peculiar moral alchemy to see that there is no paradox at all in damning out-groupers if they do and if they don’t exhibit in-group virtues. Condemnation on rsnerformeAWS S4AL90 and SSthe vveusaalencial frinctinn. Seeming opposites coalesce. When Negroes are tagged as incorrigibly inferior because they (apparently) don’t manifest these virtues, this confirms the natural rightness of their being assigned an inferior status in society. And when Jews or Japanese are tagged as having too many of the in-group values, it becomes plain that they must be securely controlled by the high walls of discrimination. In both cases, the special status assigned the sev- eral out-groups can be seen to be eminently reasonable. Yet this distinctly reasonable arrangement persists in having most unreasonable consequences, both logical and social. Consider only a few of these.

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In some contexts, the limitations enforced upon the out-group—say, rationing the number of Jews permitted to enter colleges and professional schools—logically imply a fear of the alleged superiority of the out-group. Were it otherwise, no discrimination need be practiced. The unyielding, impersonal forces of academic competition would soon trim down the number of Jewish (or Japanese or Negro) students to an “appropriate”

size.

This implied belief in the superiority of the out-group seems pre- mature. There is simply not enough scientific evidence to demonstrate Jewish or Japanese or Negro superiority. The effort of the in-group discriminator to supplant the myth of Aryan superiority with the myth of non-Aryan superiority is condemned to failure by science. Moreover, such myths are ill-advised. Eventually, life in a world of myth must collide with fact in the world of reality. As a matter of simple self-interest and social therapy, therefore, it might be wise for the in-group to abandon the myth and cling to the reality. The pattern of being damned-if-you-do and damned-if-you-don’t has further consequences—among the out-groups themselves. The response to alleged deficiencies is as clear as it is predictable. If one is repeatedly told that one is inferior, that one lacks any positive accomplishments, it is all too human to seize upon every bit of evidence to the contrary. The in-group definitions force upon the allegedly inferior out-group a defensive tendency to magnify and exalt “race accomplishments.” As the distinguished Negro sociologist, Franklin Frazier, has noted, the Negro newspapers are “intensely race conscious and exhibit considerable pride in the achievements of the Negro, most of which are meagre perform- ances as measured by broader standards.” Self-glorification, found in some measure among all groups, becomes a frequent counter-response to per- sistent belittlement from without. It is the damnation of out-groups for “excessive achievement,” how- ever, which gives rise to truly bizarre behavior. For, after a time and often as a matter of self-defense, these out-groups become persuaded that their virtues really are vices. And this provides the final episode in a tragi- comedy of inverted values. Let us try to follow the plot through its intricate maze of self-contra- dictions. Respectful admiration for the arduous climb from office boy to president is rooted deep in American culture. This long and strenuous

204THE SELF-FULFILLING PROPHECY ascent carries with it a two-fold testimonial: it testifies that careers are abundantly open to genuine talent in American society and it testifies to the worth of the man who has distinguished himself by his heroic rise. It would be invidious to choose among the many stalwart figures who have fought their way up, against all odds, until they have reached the pinnacle, there to sit at the head of the long conference table in the longer conference room of The Board. Taken at random, the saga of Frederick H. Ecker, chairman of the board of one of the largest privately managed corporations in the world, the Metropolitan Life Insurance Company, will suffice as the prototype. From a menial and poorly paid job, he rose to a position of eminence. Appropriately enough, an unceasing flow of honors has come to this man of large power and large achievement. It so happens, though it is a matter personal to this eminent man of finance, that Mr. Ecker is a Presbyterian. Yet at last report, no elder of the Pres- byterian church has risen publicly to announce that Mr. Ecker’s successful career should not be taken too seriously, that, after all, relatively few Presbyterians have risen from rags to riches and that Presbyterians do not actually “control” the world of finance—or life insurance, or invest- ment housing. Rather, one would suppose, Presbyterian elders join with other Americans imbued with middle-class standards of success to felici- tate the eminently successful Mr. Ecker and to acclaim other sons of the faith who have risen to almost equal heights. Secure with their in-group status, they point the finger of pride rather than the finger of dismay at individual success. Prompted by the practice of moral alchemy, noteworthy achievements by out-groupers elicit other responses. Patently, if achievement is a vice, the achievement must be disclaimed—or at least, discounted. Under these conditions, what is an occasion for Presbyterian pride must become an occasion for Jewish dismay. If the Jew is condemned for his educational or professional or scientific or economic success, then, understandably enough, many Jews will come to feel that these accomplishments must be minimized in simple self-defense. Thus is the circle of paradox closed by out-groupers busily engaged in assuring the powerful in-group that they have not, in fact, been guilty of inordinate contributions to science, the professions, the arts, the government, and the economy. In a society which ordinarily looks upon wealth as a warrant of ability, an out-group is compelled

inant in-group to deny that many men of wealth are among its members. “Among the 200 largest nonbanking corporations only ten have a Jew as president or chairman of the board.” Is this an observation of an anti- Semite, intent on proving the incapacity and inferiority of Jews who have done so little “to build the corporations which have built America”? No; it is a retort of the Anti-Defamation League of B’Nai Brith to anti- Semitic propaganda. In a society where, as a recent survey by the National Opinion Re- search Center has shown, the profession of medicine ranks higher in social prestige than any other of ninety occupations (save that of United States Supreme Court Justice), we find some Jewish spokesmen manoeuvred by the attacking in-group into the fantastic position of announcing their “deep concern” over the number of Jews in medical practice, which is “disproportionate to the number of Jews in other occupations.” In a nation suffering from a notorious undersupply of physicians, the Jewish doctor becomes a deplorable occasion for deep concern, rather than receiving applause for his hard-won acquisition of knowledge and skills and for his social utility. Only when the New York Yankees publicly announce deep concern over their eleven World Series titles, so disproportionate to the number of triumphs achieved by other major league teams, will this self-abnegation seem part of the normal order of things. In a culture which consistently judges the professionals higher in social value than even the most skilled hewers of wood and drawers of water, the out-group finds itself in the anomalous position of pointing with defensive relief to the large number of Jewish painters and paper hangers, plasterers and electricians, plumbers and sheet-metal workers. But the ultimate reversal of values is yet to be noted. Each succeeding census finds more and more Americans in the city and its suburbs. Amer- icans have travelled the road to urbanization until less than one-fifth of the nation’s population live on farms. Plainly, it is high time for the Methodist and the Catholic, the Baptist and the Episcopalian to recognize the iniquity of this trek of their coreligionists to the city. For, as is well known, one of the central accusations levelled against the Jew is his heinous tendency to live in cities. Jewish leaders, therefore, find them- selves in the incredible position of defensively urging their people to move into the very farm areas being hastily vacated by city-bound hordes of Christians. Perhaps this is not altogether necessary. As the Jewish crime of urbanism becomes ever more popular among the in-group, it may be reshaped into transcendent virtue. But, admittedly, one can’t be certain. For in this daft confusion of inverted values, it soon becomes impossible to determine when virtue is sin and sin, moral perfection. Amid this confusion, one fact remains unambiguous. The Jews, like other peoples, have made distinguished contributions to world culture. Consider only an abbreviated catalogue. In the field of creative literature (and with acknowledgment of large variations in the calibre of achieve- ment), Jewish authors include Heine, Karl Kraus, Borne, Hofmannsthal, Schnitzler, Kafka. In the realm of musical composition, there are Meyer- beer, Felix Mendelssohn, Offenbach, Mahler, and Schonberg. Among the musical virtuosi, consider only Rosenthal, Schnabel, Godowsky, Pach- mann, Kreisler, Hubermann, Milstein, Elman, Heifetz, Joachim, and Menuhin. And among scientists of a stature sufficient to merit the Nobel prize, examine the familiar list which includes Beranyi, Mayerhof, Ehr- lich, Michelson, Lippmann, Haber, Willstatter, and Einstein. Or in the esoteric and imaginative universe of mathematical invention, take note only of Kronecker, the creator of the modern theory of numbers; Her- mann Minkowski,’ who supplied the mathematical foundations of the special theory of relativity; or Jacobi, with his basic work in the theory of elliptical functions. And so through each special province of cultural achievement, we are supplied witha list of pre-eminent men and women who happened to be Jews. And who is thus busily engaged in singing the praises of the Jews? Who has so assiduously compiled the list of many hundreds of dis- tinguished Jews who contributed so notably to science, literature and the arts—a list from which these few cases were excerpted? A philo-Semite, eager to demonstrate that his people have contributed their due share to world culture? No, by now we should know better than that. The com- plete list will be found in the thirty-sixth edition of an anti-Semitic hand- book by the racist Fritsch. In accord with the alchemical formula for transmuting in-group virtues into out-group vices, he presents this as an “Obviously, the forename must be explicitly mentioned here, else Hermann Minkowski, the mathematician, may be confused with Eugen Minkowsky, who contributed so notably to our knowledge roll call of sinister spirits who have usurped the accomplishments properly owing the Aryan in-group. Once we comprehend the predominant role of the in-group in de- fining the situation, the further paradox of the seemingly opposed _be- havior of the Negro out-group and the Jewish out-group falls away. The behavior of both minority groups is in response to the majority-group allegations. If the Negroes are accused of inferiority, and their alleged failure to contribute to world culture is cited in support of this accusatiou, the human urge for self-respect and a concern for security leads them defensively often to magnify each and every achievement by members of the race. If Jews are accused of “excessive” achievements and “excessive” ambitions, and lists of pre-eminent Jews are compiled in support of this counter-accusation, then the urge for security leads them defensively to minimize the actual achievements of members of the group. Apparently opposed types of behavior have the same psychological and social func- tions. Self-assertion and self-effacement become the devices for seeking to cope with condemnation for alleged group deficiency and condemna- tion for alleged group excesses, respectively. And with a fine sense of moral superiority, the secure in-group looks on these curious performances by the out-groups with mingled derision and contempt.

V Will this desolate tragicomedy run on and on, marked only by minor changes in the cast? Not necessarily. Were moral scruples and a sense of decency the only bases for bring- ing the play to annd, one would indeed expect it to continue an indefi- nitely long run. In and of themselves, moral sentiments are not much more effective in curing social ills than in curing physical ills. Moral sen- timents no doubt help to motivate efforts for change, but they are no substitute for hard-headed instrumentalities for achieving the objective, as the thickly populated graveyard of soft-headed utopias bears witness. There are ample indications that a deliberate and planned halt can be put to the workings of the self-fulfilling prophecy and the vicious circle in society. The sequel to our sociological parable of the Last National Bank provides one clue to the way in which this can be achieved. During the fabulous ’20’s, when Coolidge undoubtedly caused a Republican era of lush prosperity, an average of 635 banks a year quietly suspended opera- tions. And during the four years immediately before and after The Crash, when Hoover undoubtedly did not cause a Republican era of sluggish depression, this zoomed to the more spectacular average of 2,276 bank suspensions annually. But, interestingly enough, in the twelve years fol- lowing the establishment of the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation and the enactment of other banking legislation while Roosevelt presided over Democratic depression and revival, recession and boom, bank sus- pensions dropped to a niggardly average of 28 a year. Perhaps money panics have not been institutionally exorcized by legislation. Nevertheless, millions of depositors no longer have occasion to give way to panic- motivated runs on banks simply because deliberate institutional change has removed the grounds for panic. Occasions for racial hostility are no more inborn psychological constants than are occasions for panic. Despite the teachings of amateur psychologists, blind panic and racial aggression are not rooted in “human nature.” These patterns of human behavior are largely a product of the modifiable structure of society. For a further clue, return to our instance of widespread hostility of white unionists toward the Negro strikebreakers brought into industry by employers after the close of the very first World War. Once the initial definition of Negroes as not deserving of union membership had largely broken down, the Negro, with a wider range of work opportunities, no longer found it necessary to enter industry through the doors held open by strikebound employers. Again, appropriate institutional change broke through the tragic circle of the self-fulfilling prophecy. Deliberate social change gave the lie to the firm conviction that “it just ain’t in the nature of the nigra” to join co-operatively with his white fellows in trade unions. A final instance is drawn from a study of a biracial housing project which I have been conducting with Patricia J. Salter, under a grant from the Lavanburg Foundation. Located in Pittsburgh, this community of Hilltown is made up of fifty per cent Negro families and fifty per cent white. It is not a twentieth-century utopia. There is some interpersonal friction here, as elsewhere. But in a community made up of equal num- bers of the two races, fewer than a fifth of the whites and less than a third of the Negroes report that this friction occurs between members of déf- ferent races. By their own testimony, it is very largely confined to dis- agreements within each racial group. Yet only one in every twenty-five whites initially expected relations between the races in this community to run smoothly, whereas five times as many expected serious trouble, the remainder anticipating a tolerable, if not’ altogether pleasant, situation. So much for expectations. Upon. reviewing their actual experience, three of every four of the most apprehensive whites subsequently found that the “races get along fairly well,” after all. This is not the place to report the findings of the Lavanburg study in detail, but substantially these demonstrate anew that under approprtate institutional and administrative conditions, the experience of interracial amity can supplant the fear of interracial conflict. These changes, and others of the same kind, ‘do not occur automatically. The self-fulfilling prophecy, whereby fears are translated into reality, operates only in the absence of deliberate institutional controls. And it is only with the rejection of social fatalism implied in the notion of unchangeable human nature that the tragic circle of fear, social disaster, reinforced fear can be broken. Ethnic prejudices do die—but slowly. They can be helped over the threshold of oblivion, not by insisting that it is unreasonable and un- worthy of them to survive, but by cutting off their sustenance now pro- vided by certain institutions of our society. If we find ourselves doubting man’s capacity to control man and his society, if we persist in our tendency to find in the patterns of the past the chart of the future, it is perhaps time to take up anew the wisdom of Tocqueville’s 112-year-old apothegm: “What we call necessary institutions are often no more than institutions. to which we have grown accustomed.” Nor can widespread, even typical, failures in planning human rela- tions between ethnic groups be cited as evidence for pessimism. In the world laboratory of the sociologist, as in the more secluded laboratories of the physicist and chemist, it is the successful experiment which is decisive and not the thousand-and-one failures which preceded it. More is learned from the single success than from the multiple failures. A single success proves it can be done. Thereafter, it is necessary only to learn what made it work. This, at least, is what I take to be the sociological sense of those revealing words of Thomas Love Peacock: “Whatever is, is possible.”