Most candidates are likely to suggest that Hosea 1-3 can best be interpreted as an allegorical story representing Israel's relationship with God. The prophet is perhaps applying his real marital experience to that of the nation and God, or else is inventing it for the purpose of illustration.

Alternatively, the detail of the marriage relationship may be the work of a later editor, since the book is divided into two uneven parts (1-3 and 4-14); or perhaps it combines elements of both fact and of fiction. Another level of interpretation is added by the identity of the woman in 3:1 – “The Lord said to me again, ‘Go, love a woman...’” – this may still be Gomer, or else a second woman intended to reinforce the pathos and drama of the situation.

Most candidates will develop the view that Gomer’s relationship with Hosea refers to Israel’s relationship with Yahweh. Gomer’s repeated adultery expresses Israel's repeated abrogation of the covenant relationship. Hosea’s rejection by Gomer represents Yahweh's rejection by Israel.

Hosea's continuing love for Gomer against all reason represents Yahweh’s continuing hesed/love for Israel against all normal expectation of what is expected between the partners in a covenant agreement. In both cases, the love is strong but unrequited. This interpretation then develops the concept that Yahweh's punishment is immediate but not irretrievable: Yahweh is God, not man.

Candidates might go on to discuss the suggestion that the marriage material forms part of Hosea’s call, and as such, may have been formative both in his attitude and in his message, showing the balance of love against judgment. Some might question the reality of the Hosea/Gomer story, given the obvious immorality of God’s command to be in a relationship with a prostitute. Others might suggest that both Gomer and Hosea were locked into the scenario of cultic prostitution, which would make the setting all the more poignant. There are many possible levels of interpretation. For the higher marks, candidates should attempt to respond to the question of which (if any) interpretation of the material is best.

There are many lines that candidates might take here. Since the question refers to ‘ways’, at least two different interpretations are expected for access to the higher grades.

Candidates should be able to show, for example that Hosea 1-3 can be interpreted either as an allegorical story representing Israel’s relationship with God, in which the prophet either applies his real marital experiences to that of the nation and God, or else invents it / uses it as a metaphor for the purposes of illustration. A further possibility would be that the detail of the marriage is the work of a later editor, or else that it combines elements of both fact and fiction.

Another level of interpretation is added by the identity of the woman in 3:1 – “The Lord said to me again, ‘Go, love a woman …’ “. This may still be Gomer, or else a second woman intended to reinforce the pathos of the situation.

Most candidates will develop the view that Gomer’s relationship with Hosea refers to Israel’s relationship with Yahweh, Gomer’s adultery expressing Israel’s abrogation of the covenant. Hosea’s rejection by Gomer represents Yahweh’s rejection by Israel. Hosea’s continuing love for Gomer represents Yahweh’s continuing hesed/love for Israel, the love in both cases being unrequited, or sometimes forgotten. This interpretation then develops the concept of Yahweh’s punishment as being remedial and not irretrievable: Yahweh is God, not man. Candidates might go on to discuss the suggestion that the marriage material forms part of Hosea’s call (possibly in the context that both he and Gomer functioned within the cult) and, as such, may have been formative in his attitude and message, showing the balance of love against judgement. Balance of material is not important, the only requirement being for candidates to have some awareness of the different interpretations of the material.

The question asks for the ‘biggest influence’, so in order to achieve the highest marks, candidates must refer to more than one influence. They might include some of the following:

• The nature of the covenant obligation. Hosea employs the ‘covenant lawsuit’ form (e.g. 4:1–3) to show that God’s judgement is upon Israel. Priests and prophets have rejected the knowledge and teachings of God, and have infected the people with the same malaise. The sins of which Israel stands accused are primarily a rejection of the Ten Commandments, which are the centre of covenant obligation. Israel has lost the purity of the wilderness period

• Hosea’s issues with Israel are expressed through the story of his relationship with Gomer, and candidates are likely to suggest that Hosea’s marital relationship was the biggest influence on his prophecies, however this influence is to be understood, i.e. as a parable, a real-terms comparison, an allegory, and so on

• in the same connection, Hosea’s children / his entire familial relationships are an extension of the marital metaphor, particularly in the naming and re-naming of the children

• another influence to be identified in the story of Hosea is the likely cultic background, i.e. Gomer’s status as (possibly) a cultic prostitute, and (again, possibly) Hosea’s cultic involvement

• some might refer to the compulsion from Yahweh to prophesy: “Go, take to yourself …” (1:2)

• Hosea’s major theme with regard to Yahweh is his hesed – his redeeming love, through which he allures Israel/Gomer into the wilderness in order to renew the relationship

• Hosea also refers to God’s love as that of a father for his son

• alongside the idea of redemptive love, Hosea also emphasizes the theme of God’s punishment of Israel: punishment comes before restoration, and this theme was probably influenced by the political situation

• the political situation of the day was obviously a major influence on Hosea, since Israel was suffering from the effects of war with Assyria, and was in a state of near-anarchy. After the conquest of 733–32, four Israelite kings were assassinated in 15 years (cf. 4:2 – “murder follows murder”), and Samaria fell to the Assyrians in 721. In order to access the higher marks, candidates should make some answer to the question of which was the biggest influence on Hosea’s prophecies. Credit the logic of any answer.

The reference to God’s grace is derived from B.W. Anderson’s comments on Hosea (Understanding the Old Testament, Prentice-Hall,1975, pp. 290–91), where Anderson sees the constancy of Yahweh’s love for Israel as a promise of restoration and renewal, as an ‘optimism of grace’. Candidates do not have to know the source of the quotation, but are likely to be very familiar with it and with its meaning.

Some might explain God’s grace in terms of Yahweh’s willingness to bridge the gap between the inadequacy of human attempts to be morally good and the standards of morality required by God: God makes up the difference, or the gap, through divine grace.

Candidates are likely to demonstrate this grace through some of the following:

• the significance of Hosea’s wife and the children in Israel’s religious and social life, e.g. Gomer/Hosea being // to Israel/Yahweh; also Gomer’s adultery and abandoning of the marriage relationship being // to Israel’s abandoning the covenant relationship

• the value and depth of personal experience as a means of communicating the divine word; the experience of unrequited love which is met by continued love rather than by judgement

• the concept of Yahweh’s hesed/love being // to Hosea’s human love for Gomer; also, punishment as remedial and not irretrievable: Yahweh is God, not man; Yahweh is a father who calls and directs his wayward son

• some might discuss the suggestion that the marriage story forms part of Hosea’s call, and as such, may have been formative in his attitude and message, showing the balance of love against judgement.

• Some might balance this view of grace with God’s judgement of Israel, perhaps by commenting on:

• the unhappy details of Hosea’s relationship with Gomer, which might seem to show lack of such ‘grace’ from Yahweh in commanding Hosea to enter on such a relationship

• the threat of isolation and punishment, which eventually materialized, despite assurances of grace

• the themes of judgement and punishment are prevalent throughout the book, as witness the fact that the ending appears to have been edited (as part of the redaction of the Book of the Twelve) to show a more hopeful aspect of Hosea’s prophecy.

There are many lines that candidates might take here. There are several ways in which scholars

have interpreted the material in Hosea, and answers will depend on the credence given to each,

e.g.

• some might argue that Hosea 1–3 should clearly be interpreted as an allegorical story

representing Israel’s relationship with God, in which the prophet applies his real marital

experiences to that of the nation and God. Some might argue that the detail suggests reality;

others that we are not sure of anything

• some might argue that the apparently biographical material is simply an arresting metaphor

for the purposes of illustration. A further possibility would be that the detail of the marriage is

the work of a later editor, or else that it combines elements of both fact and fiction

another level of interpretation is added by the identity of the woman in 3:1 – The Lord said to

me again, ‘Go, love a woman. This may still be Gomer, or else a second woman intended to

reinforce the pathos of the situation. For some, these details point clearly to the same

woman, otherwise the impact of the references is lost

• most candidates will develop the view that Gomer’s relationship with Hosea refers to Israel’s

relationship with Yahweh, Gomer’s adultery expressing Israel’s abrogation of the covenant.

• Hosea’s rejection by Gomer represents Yahweh’s rejection by Israel. Hosea’s continuing love

for Gomer represents Yahweh’s continuing hesed/love for Israel, the love in both cases being

unrequited, or sometimes forgotten. Given the extent of the parallels, some will again see a

clear reference to the literal details of Hosea’s life. For others, the thought that a prophet of

God might ignore the Law and marry a prostitute would be a clear indication that the reality of

these details is far from clear

• the theme of Yahweh’s punishment being remedial and not irretrievable (Yahweh is God, not

man) might also be seen as reality or metaphor/invention. Candidates might argue that the

marriage material forms part of Hosea’s call, possibly in the context that both he and Gomer

functioned within the cult, in which case such a setting might well have produced what we

read in the early chapters of the book, and, as such, may have been formative in his attitude

and message, showing the balance of love against judgement.

• For the higher levels, some judgement is expected on whether or not any of the details of

Hosea’s life are ‘clear’. Candidates who simply repeat the allegorical or metaphorical

interpretations are not likely to score highly

This is a strong claim which candidates are likely to reject in favour of the fact that Hosea develops a number of themes, not all of which are related to his experience of Gomer’s immorality, although some may argue that this was the main catalyst for his messages of

condemnation and doom:

• Hosea’s issues with Israel are clearly expressed through the story of his relationship with Gomer, and candidates are likely to suggest that Hosea’s marital relationship was the biggest influence on his prophecies, however this influence is to be understood, i.e. as a parable, a real-terms comparison, an allegory, and so on. Infidelity preyed on his mind to the extent that he used it as the prime metaphor for Israel’s abandonment of God and for the possibility of future reconciliation.

• In the same connection, Hosea’s children/his entire familial relationships are an extension of the marital metaphor, particularly in the naming and re-naming of the children.

• Another related influence here is the likely cultic background, i.e. Gomer’s status as (possibly) a cultic prostitute, and (again, possibly) Hosea’s cultic involvement.

• Hosea’s major positive theme with regard to Yahweh is his hesed – his redeeming love, through which he allures Israel/Gomer into the wilderness in order to renew the relationship.

• Hosea also refers to God’s love as that of a father for his son, which again might have been prompted by the metaphor of the family reunited.

• The key word in the question is ‘all’, so candidates are expected to investigate themes where the issue of sexual infidelity is not the main motivating force for Hosea, e.g. The nature of the covenant obligation. Hosea employs the ‘covenant lawsuit’ form (e.g. 4:1– 3) to show that God’s judgement is upon Israel. Priests and prophets have rejected the knowledge and teachings of God, and have infected the people with the same malaise. The sins of which Israel stands accused are primarily a rejection of the Ten Commandments, which are the centre of covenant obligation. Israel has lost the purity of the wilderness period.

• Some might refer to the compulsion from Yahweh to prophesy: ‘Go, take to yourself …’ (1:2) – in other words the main influence on Hosea was God’s command, which cannot be rejected.

• Alongside the idea of redemptive love, Hosea also emphasizes the theme of God’s punishment of Israel: punishment comes before restoration, and this theme was probably influenced by the political situation. This was obviously a major influence on Hosea, since Israel was suffering from the effects of war with Assyria, and was in a state of near-anarchy. After the conquest of 733–32, four Israelite kings were assassinated in 15 years (cf. 4:2 –‘murder follows murder’), and Samaria fell to the Assyrians in 721.

• Answers are likely to begin with an overview of Chapters 1–3, perhaps with a discussion of the identity of the woman in Chapter 3. If the woman in Chapter 3 is judged to be other than Gomer, then this could have a bearing on the nature of what is described.

• In favor of the view that Hosea’s experiences with Gomer are imaginary, if seen as a literary device, the character of Gomer enables Hosea to illustrate his prophecies to the Northern Kingdom concerning God’s love for them contrasted with their apostasy and threatened destruction.

• Further, for example, it is often claimed that the Gomer material is fictional because Hosea seems to have been a cultic functionary (for example Hosea 4:5–11; 6.9ff.), and it would be unthinkable under those circumstances to marry a prostitute.

• In contrast, one argument is that Gomer was involved in Temple prostitution, and perhaps Hosea was also, in which case the prophet might have been involved in some form of relationship with her / married in the sense of cultic association, so his experiences are not fictional, but are an interpretation of that experience.

• There are any number of interpretations of the Gomer material, for example that it is allegorical, factual, parabolic, and so on, and answers are likely to discuss and analyze some of these. Some might conclude that the Gomer material is a combination of different types of writing. For example, the naming and renaming of the children could be imaginary or factual, and perhaps at this distance it is not possible to make an accurate judgement. Some might argue that the marriage material forms part of Hosea’s call (possibly within the cult) and, as such, may have been formative in his attitude and message, showing the balance of God’s love against God’s judgement.

• Candidates are likely to explain the details of chapters 1–3, considering their likely interpretation in connection with the woman or women mentioned in those chapters, together with the symbolism of the children’s names and what this does or does not explain about his prophecy.

• Most are likely to argue that this material is factual, parabolic, allegorical, etc., so its meaning is open to question.

• The focus of the question is on whether or not the Gomer relationship explains ‘everything’ about his prophecy.

• ‘Everything’ will include the emphasis on judgement, love, covenant responsibility, politics, imagery, etc.

• This is an unusual slant to Hosea questions, so credit all attempts to make a case.

• This question can be answered on many levels. Judge by clarity of argument, and credit all attempts to make a case.

• The claim that Hosea’s message was all about God’s love is likely to be illustrated in terms of Hosea’s love for Gomer and their children, and the parallels between the love of Yahweh for Israel.

• Some are likely to refer to the kind of love shown by Yahweh as hesedlove, which in terms of God means the kind of love that God shows by comparison with human love. Some might make a comparison with agapeic love in the New Testament.

• Love is shown in the redemption of Israel by Yahweh and the redemption of Gomer by Hosea, and by the renaming of the children. These themes and illustrations seem to be the dominant idea of the Book of Hosea, and so support the suggestion in the question.

• For higher levels, expect some attempt to show that Hosea dealt with other themes apart from love, for example: the theme of judgement – isolation and punishment, since these did eventually emerge in historical fact. Moreover the themes of judgement and punishment are found throughout the book (examples). Further the ending of the Book of Hosea has been edited, in common with other writings in the Book of the Twelve, to show an element of hope, which suggests that hope was originally in short supply.

• Candidates are at liberty to develop any other themes they perceive in Hosea, such as religious apostasy seen against the background of the Baal cult; and the historical context of alliances by which Israel and Judah sought to survive in the wider geographical context.

Responses are likely to refer to a combination of ways of interpretation.

• Hosea 1–3 can be interpreted either as an allegory of Israel’s relationship with God, in which Hosea applies his real marital experiences to those of Israel and God

• alternatively Hosea invented the parallelism and used it as a metaphor for the purposes of illustration

• it is possible that the detail of the marriage is the inventive work of a later editor

• others consider that it could combines elements of both fact and fiction

• the problem with the realist interpretation is that marriage to a prostitute would have been a cultural disgrace and in contravention to the Law

• it might also be considered that even the metaphor would have been unacceptable

• the identity of the woman in 3:1 adds another layer to the problem in that it may still be Gomer, or else a second woman intended to reinforce the drama of the situation

• responses are likely to develop Hosea/Gomer God/Israel parallels. Gomer’s adultery represents Israel’s abrogation of the covenant while Hosea’s rejection by Gomer represents Yahweh’s rejection by Israel. Hosea’s continuing love for Gomer represents Yahweh’s continuing hesed/love for Israel, the love in both cases being unrequited. Yahweh’s punishment is seen as remedial and not irretrievable, since Yahweh is God, not man

• some might suggest that the marriage material forms part of Hosea’s call (possibly within the cult) and, as such, may have been formative in his attitude and message, showing the balance of love against judgement.

Balance of material is not important, the only requirement being for responses to show awareness of the different interpretations of the material.

There are many lines that candidates might take here. There are several ways in which scholars have interpreted the material in Hosea, and answers will depend on the credence given to each, e.g.

• some might argue that Hosea 1–3 should clearly be interpreted as an allegorical story representing Israel’s relationship with God, in which the prophet applies his real marital experiences to that of the nation and God. Some might argue that the detail suggests reality; others that we are not sure of anything

• some might argue that the apparently biographical material is simply an arresting metaphor for the purposes of illustration. A further possibility would be that the detail of the marriage is the work of a later editor, or else that it combines elements of both fact and fiction

• another level of interpretation is added by the identity of the woman in 3:1 – The Lord said to me again, ‘Go, love a woman. This may still be Gomer, or else a second woman intended to reinforce the pathos of the situation. For some, these details point clearly to the same woman, otherwise the impact of the references is lost

• most candidates will develop the view that Gomer’s relationship with Hosea refers to Israel’s relationship with Yahweh, Gomer’s adultery expressing Israel’s abrogation of the covenant. Hosea’s rejection by Gomer represents Yahweh’s rejection by Israel. Hosea’s continuing love for Gomer represents Yahweh’s continuing hesed/love for Israel, the love in both cases being unrequited, or sometimes forgotten. Given the extent of the parallels, some will again see a clear reference to the literal details of Hosea’s life. For others, the thought that a prophet of God might ignore the Law and marry a prostitute would be a clear indication that the reality of these details is far from clear

• the theme of Yahweh’s punishment being remedial and not irretrievable (Yahweh is God, not man) might also be seen as reality or metaphor/invention. Candidates might argue that the marriage material forms part of Hosea’s call, possibly in the context that both he and Gomer functioned within the cult, in which case such a setting might well have produced what we read in the early chapters of the book, and, as such, may have been formative in his attitude and message, showing the balance of love against judgement.

For the higher levels, some judgement is expected on whether or not any of the details of Hosea’s life are ‘clear’. Candidates who simply repeat the allegorical or metaphorical interpretations are not likely to score highly.