重思故技 Re-discovering Joseph Needham's Science and Civilisation in China 2020 重思故技

Application

Uses of Paper and Paper Prodoucts

Paper has always been a cheap and convenient substitute for more expensive materials or more clumsy objects which have other uses, and it is sometimes suitable for uses in which other materials will not serve. Paper was apparently not invented for writing, but as time went on writing on paper developed into a special branch of art as a medium for artistic expression. The use of paper made further progress where it became available in many purposes.

Today, paper and paper products have hundreds of uses in communication, business, industry, and household operations; they are found everywhere in daily life. Yet many of these uses can be traced back to centuries ago when paper was used as extensively and variously in China as it is elsewhere in the world today.

Paper for Graphic Arts and Stationery

Paper was used very early as a substitute for bamboo and silk as writing material.

For many centuries in China, paper has been especially designed with a variety of patterns, plain or coloured, for writing letters, poems, and commercial documents. Most popular among the many kinds of paper for artistic uses, especially painting and calligraphy, has been and still is the xuan zhi(宣紙).

Xuan zhiSource: CAI FU

Figure :Earliest extant block for printing paper money Source: Science and civilisation in China.

Figure: BanknoteSource: KKNews

Paper as a Medium of Medium of Exchange

Currency

The use of paper to represent money originated probably in the early 9th century (Tang dynasty), when Tang increasing needs of business and Tang government transactions encouraged the institution of 'flying money' as a convenient way to obviate carrying heavy metal coins from one place to another.

The system continued in the following dynasties and gradually evolved into a true paper currency.

Ceremonial Uses of Paper

Ghost money & paper offerings

Paper has played a significant part in many Chinese ceremonies and festivities in connection with ancestor worship, folk religion and, to some extent, the cult of scholarship. Ordinary or specially made papers were cut, folded, or decorated to represent various objects to be used or to be burned on such occasions as family ceremonies and state sacrifices.

This symbolic use of paper served as an economical substitute for real but expensive objects. The objects most commonly substituted for were money, garments, utensils, vehicles, servants, animals, and buildings; they were used at funerals, festivals, and in ancestor worship. Effigies of paper were made and burned as a symbol of offerings to the spirits in the other world.

Figure: Printed messages on paper bag containing ghost money for one's ancestors with prayers on four sides, address above, and a treasure pot at the lower centre.
Source: Science and civilisation in China.

Figure: Paper cloth of Japan (kamiko) made of specially treated sheets of paper
Source: Science and civilisation in China

Paper Clothing and Furnishing

Paper is mentioned in Chinese literature as having been used for various kinds of garments, bed furnishings, and other household articles in place of woven fabric, but whether these items were all made of true paper or bark cloth is uncertain. The earliest reference to this material is found in the ShiJi (史記), since all these items for wearing and bedding are described in Chinese records as made of Zhi (paper), we may assume that they were made of bark paper.

Figure: Paper articles of the Tang dynasty found in Sinkiang
Source: Science and civilisation in China

The most common paper apparel included the paper clothing used as early as the Han dynasty. There are in Han literature several references to the use of paper-mulberry for hats and headdress. Paper was also widely used as lining in cloth shoes.

A defensive covering made of paper, known as zhi jia (紙甲) or zhi kai (紙鎧), was used to protect the body and arms in battle.

The same work says that for the protection of arms and hands a paper arm-and hand cover (zhi bi shou) was also used. Each pair of these covers used four layers of cloth of a certain length on both outer and inner sides, plus a certain amount of cotton, cocoon paper, and silk thread. The paper armour was similar to the iron armour made in the north, but was flexible and convenient, light and ingenious.

Figure: Paper armour of the Ming dynasty
Source: Science and civilisation in China

Figure:Old European wall-paper
Source: Science and civilisation in China.

Wallpaper and Household use of Paper

It is generally believed that wallpaper was first brought from China to Europe by French missionaries in the 16th century, then later from Canton by Dutch, English, and French traders, and that it was imitated in Europe in the 17th century. Certainly, the colourful papers from China with hand-painted designs of flowers and birds, landscapes, and scenes of domestic life were especially fashionable in Europe from the 17th to the 19th century (Fig. 1089). It was introduced to America in 1735 and manufactured there some fifty years later. Before the use around the middle of the 19th century of machinery for printing wallpaper, it was all made according to Chinese fashion in small sheets with unit designs printed successively either by stencils or by woodblocks to give a continuous pattern.

The Chinese hand-painted wallpapers are considered the most excellent and beautiful of all.

Figure:Printing wallpaper

Source: Science and civilisation in China.

Figure : Old and modern paper cuttings
Source: Science and civilisation in China

Paper Craft and Recreational Use of Paper

Paper has great potential as a creative material for recreational purposes. It may be cut into designs to be pasted on windows, doors, lamps, and other surfaces, and on clothing and shoes in place of embroidery. It may be folded into flat or three dimensional forms for art or entertainment; and making paper flowers by folding, cutting, and pasting is a popular amusement. Because of its lightness, paper is also especially suitable for making kites. Sturdy paper or papier-mache was also substituted for many more expensive materials for games, toys, and other objects for enjoyment.

Paper Lantern

Lanterns in China generally consisted of wooden or bamboo frames covered with a variety of such translucent materials as horn, silk, or skin, but those of paper are said to have been especially elegant and skillfully made. They were lighted with candles, and were hung indoors or outdoors as decorations, or carried as aids for walking at night.

Paper-cutting

Cutting paper into various designs with scissors and knives, for making decorations at festivals or on other occasions, is a folk art of China with a history of many centuries. It probably derives from the custom of cutting out human figures, flowers, or landscapes in silk at the spring festival.

Paper Kites

The paper kite, consisting of a light bamboo frame covered with sturdy paper, and with a string attached, was made in the forms of butterflies, men, birds, or other animals.

Figure: Calligraphy and painting on folded paper fans by Ming and Chhing artists Wen Cheng-Ming
Source: Science and civilisation in China

Figure: Paper folding of triple cranes
Source : Science and civilisation in China.

Paper-folding

A flat piece of paper can be folded into various shapes and forms such as figurines, animals, flowers, garments, furniture, buildings, and numerous other objects. It helps train nimble fingers, cultivates a sense of balance and symmetry, and can be used to provide visual illustrations to explain modern physics and geometry.

Paper Fans

It is believed that paper fans first appeared in the Western Chin. When for economic reasons silk was banned, the use of paper increased.

← DIY Papermaking Process

Modern Development of Paper making →

Reference:Banknote. (2017). [Digital image of banknote] You ting guo fei qian ma ? ta ke shi wo guo zui zao de qian bi. Retrieved from https://kknews.cc/culture/px94p4e.html
Cover Picture: Helen, H .(2018). [Painting of paper making] .A Beginner's Guide to Making your Own Paper. Retrieved from https://www.artsy.net/article/artsy-editorial-crash-course-basic-papermaking
Xuan zhi (2016). [Digital image of xuan zhi ]. Wen fang qing wan zi qian wan .Retrieved from https://sns.91ddcc.com/t/103149
Needham, J. (1985). [Digital image of Earliest extant block for printing paper money ] Science and Civilisation in China. Volume V: Chemistry and Chemical Technology. Part 1 Paper and Printing. By Tsien Tsuen-hsuin, PH.D. Cambridge University Press. pp.97
Needham, J. (1985). [Digital image of Printed messages on paper bag containing ghost money for one's ancestors with prayers on four sides, address above, and a treasure pot at the lower centre] Science and Civilisation in China. Volume V: Chemistry and Chemical Technology. Part 1 Paper and Printing. By Tsien Tsuen-hsuin, PH.D. Cambridge University Press. pp.103
Needham, J. (1985). [Digital image of Paper cloth of Japan (kamiko) made of specially treated sheets of paper] Science and Civilisation in China. Volume V: Chemistry and Chemical Technology. Part 1 Paper and Printing. By Tsien Tsuen-hsuin, PH.D. Cambridge University Press. pp.113
Needham, J. (1985). [ Digital image of Paper articles of the Tang dynasty found in Sinkiang] Science and Civilisation in China. Volume V: Chemistry and Chemical Technology. Part 1 Paper and Printing. By Tsien Tsuen-hsuin, PH.D. Cambridge University Press. pp.111
Needham, J. (1985). [Digital image of Paper armour of the Ming dynasty] Science and Civilisation in China. Volume V: Chemistry and Chemical Technology. Part 1 Paper and Printing. By Tsien Tsuen-hsuin, PH.D. Cambridge University Press. pp.115
Needham, J. (1985). [Digital image of Old European wall-paper] Science and Civilisation in China. Volume V: Chemistry and Chemical Technology. Part 1 Paper and Printing. By Tsien Tsuen-hsuin, PH.D. Cambridge University Press. pp.117
Needham, J. (1985). [Digital image of Printing wallpaper] Science and Civilisation in China. Volume V: Chemistry and Chemical Technology. Part 1 Paper and Printing. By Tsien Tsuen-hsuin, PH.D. Cambridge University Press. pp.118-119
Needham, J. (1985). [Digital image of Old and modern paper cuttings] Science and Civilisation in China. Volume V: Chemistry and Chemical Technology. Part 1 Paper and Printing. By Tsien Tsuen-hsuin, PH.D. Cambridge University Press. pp.125
Needham, J. (1985). [Digital image of Calligraphy and painting on folded paper fans by Ming and Chhing artists Wen Cheng-Ming ] Science and Civilisation in China. Volume V: Chemistry and Chemical Technology. Part 1 Paper and Printing. By Tsien Tsuen-hsuin, PH.D. Cambridge University Press. pp.131
Needham, J. (1985). [Digital image of Figure: Paper folding of triple cranes] Science and Civilisation in China. Volume V: Chemistry and Chemical Technology. Part 1 Paper and Printing. By Tsien Tsuen-hsuin, PH.D. Cambridge University Press. pp.126

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