FAMH1004A- Science and Art of Health and Learning

BLOCK 1

Critical reading and writing Activity

1. What is the claim that the author is making?

Orfanos is highlighting how Hippocrates laid the groundwork for modern medicine. He discusses how even though times have changed, medicine still has the same foundation that it used to.

2. What does Orfanos mean by holistic medicine?

Orfanos is referring to the practice of healing the mind and the body. He mentions that Hippocrates did not just use medicine to heal his patients. He also used other means such as compassion, exercise, and diet. This can be seen when Orfanos discusses the architecture of the Asklepieion, a temple dedicated to Asclepius, the god of healing. This temple had four levels, each with a distinct purpose, including physical exercise, mental counselling, and spiritual healing.

3. Can you state what “physis” is in three sentences or less?

“Physis” is the idea that Air, Earth, Water, and Fire are the four basic elements of all creation. Hippocrates introduced the idea that Blood, Lymph, Gall, and Mucus are the four major components of life. This view was later called “humoral pathology” and was a leading belief until the 18th century.

4. How was Hippocrates able to turn medicine from the theoretical to a practice that could be followed? Give at least two examples.

Hippocrates emphasized the careful recording of symptoms and individual complaints, which is the clinical symptomatology we know today. He and his students kept detailed records about their findings in the “Corpus Hippocraticum,” which became a standard reference for medicine until the Middle Ages. The records included descriptions of diseases and conditions, as well as treatments. The detailed records made it easy for other physicians to follow his methods.

5. Explain in a short paragraph how knowledge was transferred from Hippocrates to the Middle Ages. Use your own words, do not copy from the text.

As the Roman Empire gave way to Christianity, there was a period where disease was once again thought to be linked to sin. During this time, there was some consternation about whether Christians should continue to use traditional medicine. Eventually, it was decided that knowledge is given by God and should be used. Once this occurred, medicine once again became a subject of study. The Islamic world translated Greek medical texts into Arabic. Avicenna’s works, in particular, became standard textbooks for European physicians.

6. What does Orfanos aim to show through his recitation of history and the transfer of knowledge?

Orfanos is warning against the “industrialization” of medicine. He argues that modern physicians are under too much pressure due to economic concerns. He warns that artificial intelligence should not be the wave of the future and that physicians should go back to having a holistic view of medicine.

7. Are you convinced by his reasons? In a small paragraph, explain why or why not.

Yes, I am convinced by Orfanos’ reasoning. Part of being a good physician is being compassionate. It is important to treat the patient as a whole, not just the disease. While artificial intelligence is useful, it can only do so much. There is more to being a doctor than diagnosing and treating illnesses. 

Activity worksheet 2.5: Using the Cognitive Bias Codex

Part 1: Choose a Bias from the Codex

Which bias would you like to learn more about?

The Dunning-Kruger effect

Part 2: Find an Academic Source

Which Academic Source have you chosen? 

Kruger, J. and Dunning, D. (2000) ‘Unskilled and unaware of it: How difficulties in recognizing one’s own incompetence lead to inflated self-assessments’, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77(6), pp. 1121–1134. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.77.6.1121. 

Part 3: Writing for Relevance

Write a short paragraph (50-100 words) in which you briefly explain in what ways you think the bias that you have selected might be relevant to medicine (e.g. medical decision-making, medical research, history of medicine).

The Dunning-Kruger Effect is critically relevant in medicine, particularly in clinical decision-making and patient safety. Inexperienced clinicians may overestimate their diagnostic skills, leading to errors in high-stakes situations (e.g., misinterpreting symptoms of acute conditions). Conversely, experts might understate their competence, causing hesitation in emergencies. This bias also impacts patient interactions: those with limited health literacy may dismiss medical advice, believing they understand their condition better than professionals. Recognizing this bias can improve training programs and patient communication strategies which ultimately reduces preventable errors. 

Activity Worksheet 3.3(a)- Reading Academic Texts

Part 1: Surveying — Skimming & Scanning

Skimming

Title/author: "Towards a dynamic definition of health and disease" by Johannes Bircher. The focus of this paper is to critique the static WHO health definition and propose a new framework linking health to "vital goals" and adaptability.

Publication date: 2005. It is still relevant. Modern medicine deals with chronic diseases and personalized care to which dynamic definitions of health are essential. 

Abstract: The paper critiques the WHO's 1948 definition of health ("complete physical, mental, and social well-being") as static and idealistic. It proposes a new dynamic framework: Health is defined as "a dynamic state of well-being characterized by a physical, mental, and social potential" that meets individual life demands. 

Headings/Sub-headings: "Introduction", "The problem of defining health", "Towards a dynamic definition of health and disease", "Discussion", "Conclusions". This structure moves from criticizing old models to presenting and justifying a new one. 

Conclusion: Health must be seen as a context-dependent, dynamic balance between an individual's potential and their life demands. The WHO definition is inadequate for modern medicine. 

Reference list: Draws on Engel (biopsychosocial model), Canguilhem (philosophy of biology), and WHO reports. 

Scanning

What is the key take-home message from this paper? Health is redefined as a dynamic state dependent on an individual’s physical, mental, and social potential to pursue vital goals within their environment. Disease is not merely pathology but a failure of adaptability when potential cannot meet life’s demands. 

How does the author situate their main argument? Bircher situates his argument by critiquing the WHO’s 1948 definition of health as unrealistic. He asserts it ignores chronic illness and disability, necessitating a new model cantered on individual potential and adaptability 

Can you trace the author's line of argument? The author begins by arguing that the WHO definition is static and fails in clinical reality. Health is the ability to achieve vital goals through adaptability. Adaptability requires interaction between individual potential and environmental challenges. Medicine must shift from disease-cantered to adaptability-cantered care. 

Part 2: Questioning

After scanning, I question "How do we measure “potential” objectively?" Bircher’s model risks subjectivity without tools to quantify physical, mental, or social capacity. I agree that health must be dynamic—especially for chronic conditions (e.g., a diabetic patient’s “health” depends on managing blood sugar to live fully, not curing diabetes). However, the Discussion section overlooks systemic barriers. Can a person in poverty truly “adapt” if they lack insulin? The paper needs concrete examples of applying this framework in clinical practice.

Part 3: Reading, Recalling, and Reviewing

In your own words, what is this paper all about? 

Bircher argues that the WHO’s 1948 health definition is flawed because it frames health as “complete well-being”—an impossible standard that marginalizes the chronically ill. Instead, he proposes health is dynamic: the physical, mental, and social potential to pursue personal goals (e.g., a parent caring for children, an artist creating work). Disease occurs when environmental demands exceed this potential (e.g., asthma preventing an athlete from running). The paper urges medicine to focus on enhancing patients’ adaptability, not just treating diseases. 

Activity Worksheet 3.5- Identifying Types of Arguments

Question 1

Carefully read the passage below, and answer questions i-iii that follow:

“Most health care practitioners accept that mental conditions are diseases. Nonetheless, mental conditions are not really diseases. If a condition is a disease, then that condition involves a distinctive biological problem that would show up on an autopsy table. However, mental conditions do not involve distinctive biological problems that would show up on an autopsy table.”

i)       Does this passage contain an argument? Explain your answer to this question.

Yes. The passage presents a claim: "mental conditions are not really diseases", which is supported by premises. 

ii)       If the passage contains an argument, what are the argument’s premises and conclusion? Explain your answer to this question.

Premises:

• If a condition is a disease, then that condition involves a distinctive biological problem that would show up on an autopsy table.

• Mental conditions do not involve distinctive biological problems that would show up on an autopsy table.

Conclusion:

Mental conditions are not really diseases

The premises are asserted as true to support the conclusion. 

iii)       *If the passage contains an argument, is it an inductive, abductive or deductive argument? Explain your answer to this question.

Deductive argument. The truth of the premises guarantees the truth of the conclusion. If the premises are true, the conclusion must be true.

Question 2

Carefully read the passage below, and answer questions i-iii that follow:

“The WHO equates health with well-being. This is a mistake. Health cannot be the same thing as well-being because it is possible to choose to compromise your health for the sake of your idea of a good and meaningful life. Athletes may compromise the long-term health of their bodies in pursuit of high achievement. A person suffering from gout may choose to manage their condition with medication rather than stop drinking red wine and eating red meat.”

i)       Does this passage contain an argument? Explain your answer to this question.

Yes. The author rejects the WHO’s position and provides reasons to support the claim that health is not equal to well-being. 

ii)       If the passage contains an argument, what are the argument’s premises and conclusion? Explain your answer to this question.

 Premises:

• It is possible to choose to compromise your health for the sake of your idea of a good and meaningful life.

• Athletes may compromise the long-term health of their bodies in pursuit of high achievement.

• A person suffering from gout may choose to manage their condition with medication rather than stop drinking red wine and eating red meat.

Conclusion: 

Health cannot be the same thing as well-being.

The examples illustrate that health can be sacrificed for well-being (e.g., achievement or pleasure), which implies that they are distinct concepts. 

iii)       *If the passage contains an argument, is it an inductive, abductive or deductive argument? Explain your answer to this question.

Deductive argument. The premises lead necessarily to the conclusion.

 Question 3

Carefully read the passage below, and answer questions i-iii that follow:

“While contemporary medicine is inseparable from anatomy, this has not always been the case in history. Over many centuries, medical understanding and practice did not attach much value to anatomical knowledge. This was partly because the barriers to conducting autopsies and dissections were very high, but also because it was not obvious what healers could do (in terms of interventions) with anatomical knowledge based on dead bodies.”

i)       Does this passage contain an argument? Explain your answer to this question.

No. The passage describes historical facts and offers explanations (why anatomy was undervalued), but it does not advance a claim supported by premises. It lacks a conclusion.

ii)       If the passage contains an argument, what are the argument’s premises and conclusion? Explain your answer to this question.

No argument present.

iii)       *If the passage contains an argument, is it an inductive, abductive or deductive argument? Explain your answer to this question.

No argument present

Question 4

Carefully read the passage below, and answer questions i-iii that follow:

“Acupuncture is undoubtedly effective. I had a friend who suffered from unexplained chronic pain. She tried all sorts of medications and treatment and nothing helped. Eventually, she tried acupuncture and afterwards the pain stopped. The only reasonable explanation for this is that acupuncture really does work.”

i)       Does this passage contain an argument? Explain your answer to this question.

Yes. The author uses a personal anecdote to support the claim that acupuncture is effective.

ii)       If the passage contains an argument, what are the argument’s premises and conclusion? Explain your answer to this question.

Premises:

• I had a friend who suffered from unexplained chronic pain.

• She tried all sorts of medications and treatment and nothing helped.

• She tried acupuncture and afterwards the pain stopped.

• The only reasonable explanation for this is that acupuncture really does work.

Conclusion: 

Acupuncture is undoubtedly effective.

The premises describe a specific case, and the author infers that acupuncture caused the pain relief.

iii)       *If the passage contains an argument, is it an inductive, abductive or deductive argument? Explain your answer to this question.

Abductive argument. The author observes an outcome (pain stopped after acupuncture) and concludes that acupuncture is the only reasonable explanation. Abductive arguments identify the best available explanation for observed facts.

Question 5

Carefully read the passage below, and answer questions i-iii that follow:

“A study of 72 obese patients with Type 2 diabetes who underwent gastric bypass operation shows that 66 patients (92 percent) had a reversal of their diabetes; however, 14 (21 percent) of the 66 patients experienced a recurrence of their diabetes. So, gastric bypass surgery is likely to reverse Type 2 diabetes, but it is also quite likely that the diabetes will recur.”

i)       Does this passage contain an argument? Explain your answer to this question.

Yes. Statistical data from a study is used to draw general conclusions about outcomes. 

i)       If the passage contains an argument, what are the argument’s premises and conclusion? Explain your answer to this question.

Premises:

• 66 out of 72 patients (92%) had reversal of diabetes after gastric bypass.

• However, 14 out of 66 patients (21%) experienced recurrence.

Conclusion: 

Gastric bypass surgery is likely to reverse Type 2 diabetes, but it is also quite likely that the diabetes will recur.

The premises provide evidence for the conclusion’s probabilistic claims. 

iii)       *If the passage contains an argument, is it an inductive, abductive or deductive argument? Explain your answer to this question. 

Inductive argument. The argument generalizes from a specific sample (72 patients) to a broader population. This matches inductive reasoning, where patterns in data support predictions.

Activity Worksheet 5.3(b)- Referencing and Paraphrasing

Part 1; Identifying Topic Sentences 

• Engel's biopsychosocial model countered biomedicine’s narrow focus by integrating biological, psychological, and social dimensions of illness. 

• The model rejects dualism (mind/body split) and reductionism, advocating for systems theory to understand emergent health interactions.

• Clinical causality is complex: circular feedback loops (e.g., obesity and diabetes) require holistic interventions.

• Relationship-centered care prioritizes trust, empathy, and patient narratives over technical detachment.

• Biopsychosocial practice demands clinician self-awareness to mitigate biases and foster participatory decision-making.

Part 2: Paraphrase an Argument

Borrell-Carrió et al. (2004) argue that Engel’s biopsychosocial model remains vital not as a "new paradigm" with revolutionary scientific laws, but as a practical framework for humane, patient-centered care. It expands clinical focus beyond biology to include psychological, social, and systemic factors (e.g., trust, cultural context, circular causality) while acknowledging limitations like clinician biases and the need for linear treatment approximations. Its value lies in adaptable application to individual patient needs.

Part 3: Referencing

Modern medicine requires clinicians to transcend purely biomedical approaches. As Borrell-Carrió et al. (2004) emphasizes, effective care hinges on recognizing that "the patient’s subjective experience [is] an essential contributor to accurate diagnosis, health outcomes, and humane care" (p. 576). This necessitates actively cultivating trust and empathy rather than relying solely on technical protocols. 

Activity Worksheet 6.3(a/b)- Identifying Warrants 

1. Example 1 

Claim: Blood & water should not be shown on national TV. 

Support: People are offended and see the programme as a bad example.

Warrant: The SABC must uphold nationally agreed moral values.

2. Example 2

Claim: Women in my taxi rank should not wear miniskirts.

Warrant: The taxi driver has the right to enforce African traditional values.

3. Example 3

Claim: African potatoes are an important resource in fighting HIV/AIDS. 

Support: Various studies suggest that HIV+ people on special diets which include African potatoes have delayed the onset of Aids.

Warrant: These studies are reliable indicators.

W10, S3b - Acquired bias and reflected inequalities in AI in medicine

1. Given how AI algorithms learn, reflect and entrench racial bias and inequalities, what other kinds of bias are these algorithms also likely to learn and apply? List at least three other plausible biases.

• Gender bias: AI may replicate unequal treatment or underrepresentation of women or non-binary people in health care data, leading to skewed diagnoses or treatment recommendations.

• Socioeconomic bias: Algorithms trained on data reflecting differences in access to care may disadvantage people from lower economic strata.

• Age bias: AI systems might reflect biases that affect diagnosis or treatment for different age groups, such as underdiagnosis in elderly or children.

2. What are two examples of how biases or inequalities that AI systems reflect could be harmful in applications in medical practice? 

• An algorithm trained on historical spending data may underestimate the health needs of Black patients, leading to less care provided to those patients.

• Delays or inaccuracies in diagnosing conditions like sepsis in minority children due to underlying biased clinical practices or data gaps can worsen patient outcomes.

3. Consider the following proposition: Since AI applications reflect biases and inequalities, they ought not to be used in medical practice.

      List three premises that that could plausibly be used to defend the proposition. 

Premise 1: AI systems perpetuate and entrench existing racial and other systemic biases, causing harm instead of improving care

Premise 2: Current regulatory and institutional frameworks are insufficient to detect, mitigate, and monitor AI biases effectively

Premise 3: The risk of harm due to biased AI decisions outweighs the benefits and withholding AI use protects vulnerable populations from further discrimination

Conclusion: “AI applications ought not to be used in medical practice.”

4. Consider the following proposition: Despite the fact that AI applications reflect biases and inequalities, they should be used in medical practice because of the good they can do.

List three premises that that could plausibly be used to defend the proposition.

Premise 1: AI has the potential to improve detection, diagnosis, and treatment accuracy beyond human capability, saving lives and improving outcomes.

Premise 2: Properly designed and continuously monitored AI systems can reduce human error and bias when combined with clinician oversight.

Premise 3: The focus should be on creating safeguards, transparency, and regulations to mitigate biases rather than abandoning AI use altogether.

Conclusion: "AI applications should be used in medical practice'"

W12, S4 - Public Opinion, Ethics and the Law - Transgender Case Study

Session 4(a) - Discussion

1. Should public opinion decide policies on gender-affirming care for trans teenagers?

Public opinion should not be the sole basis for policies on gender-affirming care because opinions vary greatly across cultures and countries, and they sometimes reflect misinformation or prejudice rather than evidence-based ethics and human rights. Policies should be grounded in medical science, human dignity, and protection of vulnerable populations rather than fluctuating popular views, which may marginalize minorities

2. If public opinion were the basis for deciding what is ethically right and wrong, what would the consequences be for minority cultural or religious groups? 

If public opinion dictates ethics, minority cultural or religious groups risk having their rights and identities suppressed or ignored due to majority bias. This could lead to discrimination, social exclusion, and denial of essential services, deepening inequalities and injustices faced by these groups. It conflicts with principles of equity and protection for the marginalized. 

3. Would the Negotiators behind John Rawls’s “Veil of Ignorance” support a policy that makes gender-affirming care available to teenagers? 

Likely yes. Behind the Veil of Ignorance, negotiators do not know their gender identity or social position, so they would want policies that protect any individual, including transgender youth, ensuring fair access to care that supports well-being and equal opportunity. Rawls’ principles support protecting basic liberties and addressing inequalities affecting the least advantaged, which aligns with affirming medical support for transgender teens based on maturity and informed consent.

Session 4(b) - Group Debate

According to the Childrens’ Act, children of 12 years and older can consent to medical treatment on their own, and they can consent to surgery as long as they are assisted by a parent or legal guardian. The proviso is that the child needs to be of sufficient maturity and to have the mental capacity to understand the benefits, risks, and social and other implications of whatever treatment they will receive. 

Debate the following proposition: 

The Children’s Act is wrong in allowing transgender children of 12 and above to obtain gender-affirming treatment (other than surgery) without the consent of their parent or guardian. The implications of such treatment are far too serious and the risks too high to allow children to make these decisions independently.  

Why the Children's Act is right:

• The Act respects children’s evolving capacities and autonomy, allowing mature minors to make informed decisions about their bodies and health, which is supported by medical standards.

• Denying such consent can cause harm by delaying necessary treatment that can improve mental health and quality of life for transgender youth.

• It protects youth from potential parental rejection or abuse, ensuring access to essential care.

Why the Children's Act is wrong:

• The treatment has serious implications and risks, requiring parental involvement to ensure decisions are made with full support and understanding.

• Children at 12 may lack full maturity or long-term perspective to comprehend the social and medical consequences.

• Parental rights and responsibilities include guiding minors through major health decisions, which this Act may undermine.

W13.S5 - Psychological Determinants of Health

Why is psychology important to medicine?

Psychology is important to medicine because it helps us understand the human mind and behaviour, which influences how patients experience illness, manage treatment, and interact with healthcare providers. Integrating psychological insights improves diagnosis, communication, treatment adherence, and holistic care, which ultimately enhances patient outcomes and wellbeing. 

W14, S3a - Studying Infants and Toddlers

Importance of seven 3-minute episodes in the Strange Situation procedure

The seven 3-minute episodes create a structured, repeatable sequence that gradually introduces increasing stress by separations and reunions with the caregiver and the presence of a stranger. This setup reveals the infant's attachment behaviors consistently in different contexts — exploring, distress during separation, reaction to a stranger, and reunion comfort seeking. The length and order allow enough time for behaviors to emerge clearly while managing the infant’s tolerance. 

Advantages and Disadvantages of using the Strange Situation procedure, rather than naturalistic observation, as a means to classify attachment types

Advantages:

• The Strange Situation is highly controlled and standardized, making attachment classifications comparable across different studies and populations. 

• The artificial stressors reliably trigger behaviours that may not be as observable in natural, more variable settings. 

Disadvantages:

• The lab setting is artificial and may not reflect real-world child-caregiver interactions fully. 

• The procedure intentionally causes stress to an infant, which raises ethical concerns and may affect natural behaviour differently than in familiar environments. 

Cross-cultural complexity issue in judgment of the validity of Strange Situation

A key issue is that attachment behaviours and caregiver-infant interactions vary across cultures. What is considered secure attachment behaviour in one culture might differ in another, due to differing child-rearing practices and social expectations. Thus, the procedure might misclassify or undervalue certain attachment styles in non-Western populations, reducing its validity and fairness globally. This cultural bias needs consideration when applying the Strange Situation across diverse contexts.

W15.S3a - Self-guided Reading: Naude (2022)

“Being me: Content and context in South African adolescents’ identity development” by Luzelle Naude (2022). 

The study aims to explore the evaluative nature (positive, negative, neutral), relational orientation (independent vs. interdependent), and the salience of various domain-specific content areas in the identity narratives of adolescents and emerging adults living in central South Africa. It focused on understanding how adolescents describe themselves across identity domains and how these descriptions are influenced by gender, age, and cultural context. 

Principle methods and procedures:

• Participants (N=281, age average=18.17) completed an adapted version of the Twenty Statements Test (TST), where they answered the open-ended question "Who am I?" up to 10 times.

• Narrative data were cleaned to remove repetitive and combined statements and then coded using the hybrid deductive and inductive approach

• Coding focused on three categories: evaluative nature of self-descriptions, relational orientation along the independent-interdependent continuum, and domain-specific content (e.g., social qualities, hobbies, values).

• Statistical analysis, including chi-square tests, were used to examine differences across gender and age groups

• Inter-rater reliability was ensured through multiple coders and Cohen's kappa coefficients.

One salient ethical issue

The use of English as a medium of instruction and data collection posed a potential ethical concern regarding linguistic accessibility and comprehension for participants whose first language was not English. This raises questions about informed consent adequacy and the validity of self-expressions, given language barriers that could affect how participants understood and responded to the TST questions.

Activity 16.3.1: Smart Search Strategies

Step 1: Exploring different search engines and databases

Search 1A: Google 

1. Is Google a database or search engine?
   Google is a search engine because it searches and indexes content available on the internet databases and websites.

2. Would you consider the results accessible and easily understood by non-academics? Why or why not?
   Yes, Google results include a mix of academic, media, institutional websites, and general information. Many results are written for a general audience, making the content relatively understandable to non-academics.

3. Are the search results relevant and appropriate?
   The results vary from highly relevant academic articles and policies to general health articles, making the relevance mixed but generally appropriate depending on the source selected.

4. Are the results reliable in terms of accuracy and trustworthiness?
   Results on Google vary widely; some are from reputable institutions, but others may be biased or inaccurate. Users need to critically evaluate sources.

5. Would you consider this an academic search?
   No, it is a broad search platform not specialized for academic content, although it may lead you to academic sources.

Search 1B: Google Scholar

1. Is Google Scholar a database or search engine?
   Google Scholar is a specialized academic search engine focusing on scholarly literature including articles, theses, and conference papers.

2. Is the content accessible and easily understood by non-academics?
   The articles found are mostly academic papers, which can be technical and less accessible to non-experts.

3. Are the results relevant and appropriate?
   Yes, Google Scholar tends to return highly relevant academic literature related to the search terms.

4. Are the results reliable?
   Yes, the sources are predominantly peer-reviewed or published in scientific journals, making them reliable.

5. Is this an academic search?
   Yes, it is specifically used to find academic, peer-reviewed literature.

Search 1C: PubMed/ScienceDirect

1. Is PubMed/ScienceDirect a database or search engine?
   PubMed and ScienceDirect are databases that collect and provide access to academic journals and articles in health and science fields.

2. Is the content accessible to non-academics?
   No. The articles are scientific and may be difficult for general audiences to fully understand.

3. Are the results relevant and appropriate?
   Yes, results are typically relevant and focused on scientific research and review articles in health psychology.

4. Are the results reliable?
   Yes, these databases index peer-reviewed and reputable health research literature.

5. Is this an academic search?
   Yes, both platforms provide high-quality academic content.

Search 1D: Google Gemini AI 

1. Is Gemini a database or search engine?
   Google Gemini AI is an AI-powered search engine assistant that provides summarized answers and search results based on input queries.

2. Is the content accessible and easily understood by non-academics?
   Usually yes, because it aims to present information in an understandable and conversational manner.

3. Are the results relevant and appropriate?
   Generally, yes, but the AI may provide summaries or generated responses with varying depth and accuracy based on data quality.

4. Are the results reliable?
   Mixed opinion, because it depends on AI training data and needs careful cross-referencing with reputable sources.

5. Is this an academic search?
   Not strictly academic; it assists academic searches but should be used alongside traditional sources.

Comparing Searches 1A, 1B, 1C

• Academics should not treat all search engines/databases equally; academic databases (e.g., PubMed) offer more reliable and relevant scholarly content.

• Academic databases provide rigorous peer-reviewed material essential for theoretical and practical research bases.

• Non-academic engines like Google can provide context, news, and diverse perspectives but must be critically evaluated.

• AI assistants like Google Gemini offer useful summarizations and rapid information access but should support, not replace, traditional academic research.

Step 2: Using keywords to deepen your search

Subject-describing words:

Health, Belief Model, Africa, Review, Application, Extension

Keywords listed in the paper:

Health Belief Model, African context, health behaviour, health education, cultural adaptation

Three search terms related to the research topic:

• 1. Health Belief Model in Africa

  2. Health behaviour and cultural adaptation

  3. Health education in an African context

Conducting these searches returns relevant articles focusing on the theoretical framework, cultural considerations, and health interventions tailored to African populations, showing keywords' effectiveness in refining searches.

Step 3: Filtering and sorting results

Search 4A: Filtering results by a custom time range (1990-2000)

Filtering by time range helps focus on foundational research or specific historical developments and avoid outdated or too recent literature not relevant to the study's scope.

Search 4B: Sorting results by relevance and publication date

Sorting by relevance prioritizes the most connected articles to the search terms, useful for quick overviews.

Sorting by date helps identify the latest research developments, essential in fast-evolving fields.

Filtering Abstracts vs. Everything

Filtering by abstracts narrows down results to include only those with substantive summaries, improving efficiency.

Searching everything yields broader results but can include less relevant or non-peer-reviewed sources.

W18.S5 - Thinking about the Experience of Illness

The illness I am reflecting on is my grandmother’s Type 2 Diabetes, specifically a recent hyperglycaemic episode that she had. 

1. How did you/they know/feel something was wrong?

She told us she felt "off." Specifically, she was experiencing extreme thirst, a dry mouth no amount of water could quench, and was needing to urinate frequently. She felt unusually fatigued and weak.

2. What did you/they think about this? 

My grandmother initially thought she might just be coming down with a bug or that it was due to the hot weather. She kept saying, "I'm just getting old, this is normal." The rest of the family, however, was more concerned.  

3. What did you/they do about this? 

The first thing we did was insist she check her blood glucose level with her home monitor. 

The first few steps taken

1. Who did you/they talk to about this?
   She first talked to me and my mother about how she was feeling. We are her primary caregivers. We then, as a family, discussed the readings and her symptoms, trying to decide what to do next.

2. Were any 'home' remedies taken/used and did these help/not? 

The immediate protocol after seeing the high blood sugar reading was giving her water.

3. How was this known/decided upon?

This was advised by her doctor to help the kidneys flush out excess sugar through urine and prevent dehydration. It helped with the immediate symptom of thirst but did not lower the blood sugar significantly on its own.

4. What happened next?
   Despite following the initial steps, her blood sugar readings remained dangerously high. So, we decided that external help was needed.

Seeking Health Care 

1. Was health care sought?
   Yes.

2. How long was it before health care was sought?
   It was about six to eight hours after we first confirmed her dangerously high blood sugar levels with the home monitor. 

3. Was this sought from a professional [who] or from another source? Why?
   We first contacted a triage nurse on her medical aid's 24/7 advice line. We chose this because it provided immediate, professional guidance without the physical ordeal of taking her to a clinic in her fragile state.

4. What information/decisions led to the choice of this specific person/source? What networks, advantages or limitations shaped this choice?
   The choice was shaped by the advantage of our medical aid, which offered this service, and the limitation of my grandmother's poor mobility. We trusted this source because her specialist had recommended it as a first step during past consultations.

5. How did this impact on the ‘what’, ‘how’, ‘why’ & ‘when’ and ‘what next’ of the illness?
   The nurse confirmed the hyperglycaemic episode and gave us a clear, authoritative action plan for insulin adjustment and monitoring. This provided a definitive timeline for improvement and directly led to a follow-up doctor's appointment to prevent future crises.