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and infections persist. “Superbug” refers to a pathogen (especially a bacterium) that has developed resistance to the medications normally used against it (typically antibiotics). biochemistry A branch of science that explores the chemical processes within and related to living organisms. It is a laboratory based science that brings together biology and chemistry. By using chemical knowledge and techniques, biochemists can understand and solve biological problems. (Biochemical Society 2017) biogeography A branch of biology that studies the geographic distribution of plants and animals. It is concerned not only with habitation patterns but also with the factors responsible for variations in distribution. (Encyclopaedia Britannica 2017) biomarker A biological molecule found in blood, other body fluids, or tissues that is a sign of a normal or abnormal process, or of a condition or disease. A biomarker may be used to see how well the body responds to a treatment for a disease or condition. Also called molecular marker and signature molecule. (National Cancer Institute 2017) biosecurity An integrated approach that encompasses the policy and regulatory frameworks (including instruments and activities) that analyze and manage risks to food safety, animal life and health, and plant life and health, including associated environmental risk. Biosecurity covers the introduction of plant pests, animal pests and diseases, and zoonoses; the introduction and release of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) and their products; and the introduction and management of invasive alien species and genotypes. (FAO Committee on Agriculture 2003) core public health capacities Essential public health capacities that States Parties (countries) are required to have in place throughout their territories pursuant to Article 5 and 12, and Annex 1A of the IHR 2005. Eight core capacities are defined and these are listed in Annex 2B of this report. These core capacities are now also reflected in the Joint External Evaluation Tool, which can also be found in Annex 2B. epidemic The occurrence in a community or region of cases of illness or health-related events clearly in excess of normal expectancy. (A Dictionary of Epidemiology. Oxford. 2014) Many epidemiologists use the terms outbreak and epidemic interchangeably, but the public is more likely to think that epidemic implies a crisis situation. (Porta 2008) Epidemics caused by a new pathogen (i.e. new disease), may occur in one or more regions and not become pandemics. Pathogens causing these diseases include Ebola virus, coronaviruses like SARS and MERS-CoV, and Aedes-transmitted viruses like Zika and yellow fever. GLOSSARY viii ix epidemiology The study of the distribution and determinants of health-related states or events (including disease), and the application of this study to the control of diseases and other health problems. Methods of epidemiological investigations include surveillance, descriptive studies of distribution, and analytical studies of determinants. (World Health Organization 2017) Global Health Security Agenda (GHSA) A partnership (launched in February 2014) of over 64 nations, international organizations, and non-governmental stakeholders to to help create a world safe and secure from infectious disease threats and elevate global health security as a national and global priority. (Global Health Security Agenda 2017b) IDA18 The 18th replenishment of IDA (part of the World Bank Group) has $75 billion for projects in the 75 poorest countries from July 1, 2017 to June 30, 2020. The concessional credits and grants are for projects that reduce poverty and foster sustainable economic development, including economic policy reform programs. The amount that a country can obtain from IDA is based on policy performance, but IDA’s Crisis-Response Window can quickly give additional funds to countries to respond to disasters, including control of disease outbreaks. Under its IDA18 agreement with donors, the World Bank is to support: (i) “at least 25 IDA countries in developing pandemic preparedness plans,” and (ii) “25 countries in developing frameworks for governance and institutional arrangements for multisectoral health