imprecise consonants
distorted vowels
harsh vocal quality
irregular articulatory breakdowns
strained vocal quality
monopitch
monoloudness
(Shipley & McAfee, 2025)
Athetosis
Ballism
Chorea
Cerebrovascular accident (CVA)
Drugs
Dyskinesia
Dystonia
Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome
Infection
Tumor
(Shipley & McAfee, 2025)
Recurrent laryngeal nerve resection, avulsion, denervation-innervation
Botox injection
Midline lateralization thyroplasty
Deep brain stimulation
Lioresal
Tegretol
Sinemet
Klonopin
Clonidine
Clozaril
Fluphenazine
Guanfacine
Haldol
Inderal
Lithane, Eskalith
Mysoline
Artane
Olanzapine
Pimozide
Reserpine
Risperdal
Xanax
(Duffy, 2020)