History of Labour

Origins and Early History

• Europe’s Industrial Revolution (Late 18th–19th century):
  The rise of factories and mechanized production led to harsh working conditions, low wages, and rapid urbanization. Early worker protests evolved into trade unions in the United Kingdom from around 1760–1830.

• Worldwide Movement:
  Labour organizing spread across Europe, the US, and beyond in the 19th century. Major strikes and collective actions became common as industrialization expanded.

Marx, Engels, and the “Organized Looting” Critique

• "The Condition of the Working Class in England" (1845):
  Friedrich Engels’ book, with direct input and collaboration from Karl Marx, documented the squalor, illness, and exploitation of workers in England. Engels described the industrial capitalist system as akin to “social murder” and organized robbery of the working class, highlighting how industrial progress came at the cost of workers’ lives and dignity.

• Key Quote (paraphrased):
  Engels argued that repeated exposure to the dangerous, unhealthy conditions of urban factories amounted to “murder committed by the capitalist class” by knowingly subjecting workers to deadly conditions—they “kill, but do not murder,” and this, he wrote, was “murder on a large scale, or organized looting and theft.”
  Marx and Engels saw this as proof that only worker solidarity and revolution could achieve true emancipation.

Timeline of Major Labour Wars and Victories

Period

Global Milestones

Indian Context

1700s–1800s

Guild protests; first unions in UK, US

1850s–90s: Rail, textile mills; 1875: first major Bombay strike

Late 1800s

Major strikes, Haymarket Riot, US labor movement

1890: Bombay Mill Hands’ Association

Early 1900s

ILO founded (1919); rise of socialist parties

1920: All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC); post-WWI industrial unrest

1930s–1950s

New Deal labor laws (US); WWII era protections

1947: Indian independence and constitutional labour rights

1960s–1980s

Decolonization; union gains; waves of strikes

Expansion of labour laws; union pluralism

1990–present

Globalization, automation, gig economy, setbacks

Shift to informal sector, contractification, new codes

Labour Community and Socio-Political Impact

• Trade Unions: Built global and national communities seeking collective bargaining, fair wages, safe workplaces, and dignity for all.

• Political Power: Influenced creation of parties (e.g., UK Labour Party) and shaped welfare state policies.

• Enduring Legacy: Labour movements won rights such as the 8-hour workday, minimum wage, social security, unionization, and protection from discrimination.

International Labour Organization (ILO) and Conventions

• ILO Founded (1919):
  Born from labour struggles and WWI’s aftermath, ILO works for social justice and decent work worldwide. It uniquely gives equal voice to governments, employers, and workers. Now part of the UN, it has over 100 member countries.

• Conventions:
  The ILO has adopted 191 Conventions, with 8 “core” conventions covering basic rights: No forced/child labour, right to organize, collective bargaining, equal pay, non-discrimination. Enforcement depends on national adoption.

• Sustainable Development Goals (SDG 8):
  Work for “decent work and economic growth,” linking labour rights with global development efforts.

India’s Labour Situation and ILO Relations

• Current Labour Landscape:
  India’s labour force is increasingly informal, with many workers lacking full protections and social security. Only around 21.5% of Indian workers are formally employed, and within that, less than half receive full legal benefits.

• ILO Conferences and Conventions:
  India has ratified some but not all core labour conventions (e.g., not all regarding the right to organize for government workers). Challenges include large informal/unorganized sectors, administrative hurdles, and balancing global norms with domestic realities.

• Why No National Labour Conference Recently?
  India’s own National Labour Conference has not been held regularly, likely due to disagreements over new labour codes, political differences with unions, and the size/diversity of its informal sector, which complicates consensus and representation. The government argues that pending full transition to modernized labour codes and broader consensus, holding a major conference has been difficult.

• Fulfillment Issues:
  The gap in implementation arises from the huge informal workforce, contract work, employer resistance, lack of enforcement, and sometimes political reluctance due to fears of economic disruption.

Summary: Labour, Rights, and Ongoing Struggles

• Labour rights have been won through persistent, organized struggle.

• Marx and Engels saw the early industrial order as “organized looting”—a radical critique still referenced by labour activists.

• Every milestone, from the ILO to national laws, came through negotiation, protest, and political activism.

• Today’s labour movement faces new global challenges: informalization, automation, and precarious ‘gig’ work.

• Sustainable development, enforced labour rights, and active worker representation remain key to decent work and economic justice.

• India, while advancing in some areas, still faces hurdles in fully meeting ILO conventions due to the scale and complexity of its informal workforce and ongoing legal transitions.

India’s Labour Struggles and History

Early Days and Colonial Period

• Beginnings: The Indian labour movement arose in the late 19th century as industrialization under colonial rule led to poor, exploitative working conditions. The first organized protest was at the Empress Mills, Nagpur (1877); the Bombay Mill Hands’ Association (1890) is considered India’s first sustained trade union.

• Harsh Working Conditions: Early industrial workers—many in textiles, jute, and railways—endured meager pay, long hours, child labour, and unsafe workplaces, spurring sporadic worker protests and some of the earliest strikes in Asia.

• Interwar Mobilization: The 1920s and 1930s saw rapid growth in unions. The All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC) formed in 1920 and played a leading role in major strikes (e.g., 1928 Bombay textile, 1921 Assam tea gardens), often blending economic and nationalist aims.

• Political Divisions: The movement split ideologically: moderate reformists, Congress-aligned nationalists, and communists, leading to events such as the Meerut Conspiracy Case (1929–33) where radical labour leaders were heavily prosecuted.

Struggles and Victories

• Pre-independence: Labour protests became entwined with anti-colonial struggle. Notably, Mahatma Gandhi supported textile and mill workers, using nonviolent protest, while communists championed striking workers in the 1920s–1930s.

• Post-Independence Wins: India’s Constitution enshrined key labour rights. Landmark achievements included the 8-hour workday, minimum wage, maternity benefits, and protection from caste or gender discrimination in employment.

• Recent Decades: Union power fluctuated with economic liberalization (1991 onward) bringing challenges: informal jobs, contract labour, and gig economy expansion. Yet unions remain active, fighting for social security, wage increases, and legal protections for new forms of work.

India’s Role in the ILO

• Founding Member: India is a founding member of the ILO (since 1919), and a permanent member of its Governing Body since 1922. The first Asian ILO office opened in India (1928).

• Active Participation: India regularly sends tripartite delegations (government, employers, workers) to the ILO’s annual International Labour Conference, and has had Indians serve as conference presidents and vice-presidents.

• Influence: India has been instrumental in shaping global debates on social security, migrant labour, and fair global work standards. At the 2025 ILO Governing Body Meeting, India highlighted national achievements on social protection (e.g., EPFO, ESIC), digital labour registration (e-Shram), and social security portability for migrants. India also offered voluntary financial support for ILO projects and is a leader in global discussions on responsible business and social justice.

India’s Status on ILO Conventions

• General Record: India has ratified 47 ILO conventions and 1 protocol (39 still in force).

• Core Conventions: Of the 8 ILO “core” conventions (regarded as fundamental to workers’ rights), India has ratified 6:

  • Forced Labour Convention (No. 29)

  • Abolition of Forced Labour Convention (No. 105)

  • Equal Remuneration Convention (No. 100)

  • Discrimination (Employment & Occupation) Convention (No. 111)

  • Minimum Age Convention (No. 138)

  • Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention (No. 182)

• Not Ratified—Key Gaps: India has NOT ratified two critical conventions:

  • Freedom of Association and Protection of the Right to Organise (No. 87)

  • Right to Organise and Collective Bargaining (No. 98)

  • Reasons: Indian legal framework restricts union rights for government employees (especially right to strike), which blocks full ratification.

Continuing Challenges

• Implementation Gap: While Indian law incorporates many ILO standards, gaps persist in actual enforcement, especially for informal sector workers, contract labour, and in some states.

• Delayed Conferences: India has not held a National Labour Conference recently due to political differences, lack of consensus on new labour codes, and difficulties in representing its vast informal workforce.

• Sustainable Development and Labour: India’s recent labour reforms aim to improve compliance and widen social protection (e.g., Social Security Code 2020), but informal sector coverage remains a struggle.

Current Labour Climate and Way Forward

• Progress: India’s social security coverage has jumped from 19% (2015) to 64.3% (2025). Huge expansion in beneficiary databases (e.g., e-Shram) and simplification of labour codes show commitment to aligning with global standards and SDGs.

• Ongoing Fights: Labour unions continue to advocate for job security, occupational safety, a living wage, and full legal rights for all categories of workers—including migrants and gig workers.

• ILO and India in 2025: India is a leading voice in ILO forums, advocating responsible business, decent work, and fair migration. But it still faces domestic challenges—the key one being the vast informal sector where many lack full legal protection and bargaining power.

Summary Table: India & ILO Conventions (as of 2025)

Convention Type

Ratified?

Key Issues/Notes

Founding Member, Gov. Body

Yes

Major global influence

8 Core Conventions

6/8 ratified

Missing: No.87, No.98 (union rights for govt employees)

Total Conventions

47 (39 active)

Continuous legal reforms underway

Implementation

Mixed

Gaps in informal sector; improving with new laws and digital tools

India’s labour history is characterized by resilience, reform, and the ongoing struggle for fair and just work. Its global engagement—especially with the ILO—is significant, but internal implementation and extension of rights to informal and government workers remain pivotal unfinished agendas.

The 8-Hour Workday Struggle: Europe

Origins in Europe and the US

• Early 1800s: With the spread of the Industrial Revolution, factory work often meant 12–16 hour days, six days a week, under grim and dangerous conditions. Workers and reformers started demanding “eight hours for work, eight hours for rest, eight hours for what we will.”

• Britain: The first push came from British workers as early as the 1810s and 1820s. The “Ten Hours Movement” in the UK won the Factories Act 1847, limiting work for women and children in textiles to 10 hours a day.

• United States: The labour movement in the US made “eight-hour day” a rallying cry in the 1860s. The Chicago Haymarket Affair (1886), when police and workers clashed during a mass strike, became a global symbol of the struggle—ultimately leading to today’s observance of International Workers’ Day (May Day) on May 1.

Key European Victories

• By the early 20th century, laws limiting work to 8 hours became common across Western Europe, often after decades of strikes, protests, and, at times, violent government pushback.

• After World War I, the International Labour Organization (ILO) was established in 1919, and its very first convention (ILO Convention No. 1) called for an 8-hour maximum working day and a 48-hour workweek in industry—recognizing the struggle’s global importance.

The 8-Hour Day in India

Colonial Times and Early Struggles

• Industrialization in India under British rule brought long, exploitative workdays—often up to 14–16 hours, especially in textile mills.

• Indian worker protests and strikes in the early 20th century echoed global demands. The 1918–1919 textile strikes in Bombay (now Mumbai) were especially significant, as workers explicitly called for an 8-hour day.

Major Breakthrough: First Legal 8-Hour Day in India

• 1919: The British colonial government, facing mass protests and influenced by the global mood after World War I, finally passed the Indian Factories (Amendment) Act, 1919, which officially limited the workday in factories to 12 hours.

• 1920–30s: Continued agitation by India’s growing trade union movement forced further concessions.

• 1931—Historic Triumph: At the International Labour Conference in Geneva, Indian trade unionist N.M. Joshi secured India’s commitment to the 8-hour workday, making India the first British colony to officially introduce the 8-hour legal workday—a full decade before many other Asian and colonized nations.

After Independence

• The principle of the 8-hour day is enshrined across Indian labour laws and is protected by the Factories Act, 1948, the Shops and Establishments Acts in each state, and subsequent codes.

Why the 8-Hour Day Mattered

• Human Dignity: It marked the end of near-endless toil, giving workers time for family, health, education, and political life.

• Foundation for Modern Labour Rights: Set a precedent for fair working conditions, weekends, holidays, and paid leave.

• A Symbol of Global Solidarity: The struggle crossed continents and cultures, helping unify workers in the call for justice.

Ongoing Challenges

While most countries (including India and Europe) now guarantee the 8-hour day on paper, enforcement gaps persist—especially for informal, gig, and contract workers. The movement continues, both for stricter compliance and adaptation to new forms of work like digital gig platforms.

In summary:
The 8-hour workday wasn’t gifted by employers or states—it was won through decades of struggle, sacrifice, and solidarity by workers in Europe, India, and across the globe. It stands as a cornerstone victory in the quest for human dignity and fair work—even as new challenges emerge for today’s labour movement.

The move towards shorter working hours is a defining trend of the 21st-century labour movement. Many countries are experimenting with 6-hour workdays, 4-day workweeks, and flexible schedules—enabled largely by technological advances that boost productivity and allow tasks to be completed in less time.

The 6-Hour Workday: Global Progress

• Sweden led the way with trials in both private and public sectors, notably at a Toyota plant and several tech companies. Results showed higher productivity, improved well-being, reduced sick days, and greater employee engagement—even when salaries remained unchanged.

• Other countries, like the Netherlands and certain firms in Japan, have also shifted towards shorter or more flexible work hours, yielding high workforce participation and social stability.

Technology upgrades—like automation, digital tools, and remote work—enable these shorter schedules by making workers more efficient and reducing time spent on repetitive or administrative tasks.

The Four-Day Workweek & Reduced Hours

• Countries adopting or trialing a 4-day week in 2025:

  • Iceland: Major public sector trial showed shorter weeks increase productivity and worker happiness; now, 90% of Icelandic workers have reduced hours or flexibility.

  • Belgium, Japan, Spain, UAE, Denmark, Germany, and Australia have all run successful pilot programs or made policy reforms supporting condensed work weeks.

  • Japan’s government and some major companies actively promote the four-day workweek to improve work-life balance, especially for women, and address demographic challenges.

• Benefits: Trials and adoption show higher productivity, employee retention, reduced burnout, healthier workplaces, and ecological advantages due to fewer commutes.

India’s Status: Lagging Behind

• Legal Limit: India’s laws (Factories Act, 1948; new labour codes) cap work at 9 hours a day, 48 hours a week—higher than the international norm of a 40-hour week.

• Ground Reality: In practice, many Indian workers (especially in white-collar, informal, or gig jobs) often work far longer—a 60-hour week is not uncommon, and there has recently been industry talk of pushing for 90-hour weeks, despite global moves in the opposite direction.

• No National 6-hour or 4-day Week Policy: India has yet to run large-scale pilots or embrace statutory shorter work weeks. Technology is widely used across Indian industry, but cultural expectations, job insecurity, and economic pressures mean most workers have seen little benefit in reduced hours.

• Consequences: Overwork in India leads to high rates of burnout, low productivity (only $8.7 output per hour compared to $54.3 in the UK), and stifles skill development and health. Worker advocacy for reduced hours remains strong but faces resistance from employers focused on maximizing available labour in a country with vast unemployment.

Why India Lags

• Economic Structure: Informal work and job scarcity make shorter hours less politically and economically urgent compared to creating more jobs.

• Cultural Attitudes: There is a prevailing belief that longer hours equal more wealth, even though evidence shows diminishing returns after a certain threshold.

• Institutional Gaps: No significant legislative or union-led push has brought large-scale change, and political uncertainty keeps major reform off the agenda.

The Way Forward

• Future Potential: As technology and productivity rise, India could benefit from shorter workweeks—improving health, work-life balance, and unlocking hidden economic value as seen in other countries.

• Need for Policy Shift: Stakeholders—including unions, government, and progressive businesses—could lead pilot projects, drawing from European, Japanese, and Icelandic experience to demonstrate feasibility, especially in knowledge sectors and urban centers.

In summary:
While much of the developed world increasingly embraces 6-hour workdays and 4-day workweeks—with proven gains in productivity and well-being—India continues to operate with longer hours and has not yet made major policy moves toward reduced working time. Addressing this gap will be crucial for improving both the lives of workers and the country’s overall economic performance in the coming years