Voice in Ancient Texts

According to Hindu mythology, the first sound or voice ever to be heard in the universe is Naad-brahma or 'Om'. This Naad-brahma pervades the entire universe and being a manifestation of the divine power (or Brahma) is the purest sound Voice to be heard.

In ancient India, Voice was the only means of passing knowledge down the generations and writing systems development much later. Great care was taken to preserve the Vedas, which was passed down by oral tradition.

The Vedas are recited with special accentuation with utmost care as each intonation and inflection of voice could have beneficial or adverse effects. It was from the Samaveda, the musical Veda, which began to use musical pitches and vocal ornamentation, which later paved way for the development of Indian Classical Music and the culturing of voice.

Indian culture is replete with various ceremonies, festivals both religious and commercial which uses the voice for recitation or singing.

In ancient Indian Text they use different Sanskrit name for musical voice. In Aitereya Aranyaka uses the term Daivi Veena (divine lute) and Shariri Veena (bodily lute) to denote voice .Naradiya Shiksa calls the voice by the name Gaatra Veena (bodily lute).

The phenomenon of voice production has been explained in Rik Prathisakhya as follow:

When there is an effort (wanting to speak) on the speaker, the air (in the form of) Prana is emitted (anupradhana) from the lungs (kostya) becomes breath or voice according to the aperture (Kha) of the throat (i.e. larynx) which is open or closed.

In Taitterya pratisakhya the statement

Samvruti kante nadah kriyayate vivrute svasah

Meaning that when vocal aperture is made to contract( samvrute) the sound or voice comes out and when it(the vocal cords) is apart (vivrute), only the breath comes out.

These are many other texts which talk about good voice and good song (ganam) which includes qualities of voice also. But all of them talk about same or similar qualities eg, Nasradaiya Shiksha, Paniniya Shiksha, Sangeeta Samayasara of Parshvadeva, Manasollasa of Raja Someshwar, etc.

The production of sound as described by these ancient music texts can be summarized as follows; First in the subtlest part of our body is a desire is produced to produce a sound (in the brain) . This gives inspiration to the mind. The mind stimulates the Agni (fire elements) .The Agni, i.e the fire, pushes and stimulates the Vayu i.e the air element. This Vayu travels from the Brahma Granthi (a knot in the Kundalini, at the Mooladhar Chakra) upwards crossing the paths of the Chakra-s. The subtlest form of sound is produced at Brahma Granti.

This sound travels upwards from the different path. For Example:

1) Navel

2) Heart,

3) Throat and

4) Head

This is produced as Voice from the mouth. The subtlest sound becomes grosser and grosser in this process, till it reaches the mouth where it becomes so gross that it can be heard by the normal human ear. 

It is explained in Sangeea Ratnakar by Saragadeva as:

Aatma vivakshmaa no-yam manah prerayate manah | 

Dehastham vanhimaahanti sa prerayati maarutam ||

Meaning- when the self (soul) desires to speak, it gives inspiration to the mind. Then the mind strikes the fire in the body. This further stimulates the air element (vital force).

Brahmagranthishitah so- tha kramaad Urdhvapathe charan|

naabhihRtka NtHam Urdhaasye S Hvaavirbhaavayati dhvanim ||

meaning – the air (vayu) which dwell in the brahmagranthi ( a knot near the anal regoon) then rises up from navel, heart, head and mouth and manifests as sound.

Nakaaram praa Nanaamaanam dakaaramanalam vidhuh | 

Jaatah praaNagnisanyogaattena naado-bhidhIyate ||

Meaning – Scholars know that nakara (the sound of na ) is the name of the air (prana) and dakaara ( the sound of da ) is the fire. As air and fire combined to form sound it is called as Nada.

The Bruhaddhrama Purana, the latest of upa-puranas, asserts, that a good tone and musician ship are required for good singing but sousvaryam (good tone) is more important or superior than Vidhinana (musical skill)

sousvaryam ca vidhinana ganam dhvayamaye syate

Atisete vidhinanam sousvaryam tu phaladhikam - (Bramh Puran, 37)

The most ancient and authoritative Indian text which talks about voice is Natya Shastra by Bharat Muni, also called as Natyaveda. Bharat Muni has stated following six qualities of good voice for singers and actors, which are applicable even today.

Shraavako-tha ghanah snigdho madhuro hyavadhaanavaan 

tristaanashobhItyevam tu shatkangasya guNaah smarataah

Meaning – "Voice which can be well heard (loud enough) , well tuned and richly textured, smooth and that which is not harsh, is sweet and harmonious, a voice well tuned and a voice which is balanced in all the three octaves and registers- remember these are the six limbs or qualities of good voice."

Natyashastra by Bharatmuni

hRdaattam (duraattu) shrUyate yasmaattasmaacchraavaka uchhyate shraavakah susvar

arukshadhvanisanyuktah snighastajjnaih prakIrtitah

Maanapralhaadanakarah sa vai madhura uchyate

Svare-dhike cha hIne cha hyavirakto-vidhaanavaan shirahkaNtheShabhihitam

tristhaanamadhurasvaraih

TristhaanashobhItyevam tu sa hi tajjnaih prakIrtitah

Kapilo vyavasthitaschaiva tathaa sandaShTaevacha

Sharangdeva in his text Sangeet Ratnakar (13th Century) A.D.) has elaborated on the metaphysical aspects of voice and music. He explains how any sound is produced from subtlest to subtle, and from subtle to gross, i,e, from Para to Vaikhari. He has also explained the importance of Chakra-s in music.

In his text Sangeet Ratnakar (13th century A.D.) given more than thirty qualities of the voice. He says that basically voice is of three types, which bear the qualities Kapha, Pitta and Vata. 

Sangita Ratnakar By Sharangdeva

Chaturbhedo bhavecchhabdah khaahulo naar Taabhidhah

Bombako mishrakashcheti tallakshaNamathochyate.

Kaphajah khaahulah snigdhamadhurah soukumaaryayuk aaDilla eSha eva proudashchenmandramadhyayo

TristhaanaghanagambhiraIInah pittodbhavo dhvanih

Naaroto bombakastu syaadantarnihrataayutah

ParuShochchaistarah sthUlo vaatajah shaangIrNoditah

EtatsammishraNaadukto mishrakah saannipaatikah

The Indian texts have used the word ―'Sthana' for registers. Sthana, in Sanskrit means the residing place. Sangeet Ratnakar has briefed about these sthana-s. the heart or hridaya is the sthana of mandra saptaka i. e. the middle octave and head or Mastaka is the sthana of tara saptaka i.e. the higher octave.

The three Sthanas were recognized during the period of Rig Veda itself. Mandra,Madhaya and Tara.

Taitteriya Praatishaakhya also says that the tension, hardness and constriction of the aperture or the Vocal Chords causes the high note while the low note is effected by laxness, softness and widening of the vocal aperture. 

Taitteriya Praatishaakhya also discusses the topic of resonance in the voice with the term Pratishrutkani and denotes the areas Uram (chest), Shirah (head), Mukham (face) and Nasika (nose) as resonators. the text also mentions all the vowels and consonants along with the position of tongue in the mouth, which is found to be accurate as per the current understanding of the modern science.

According to In Panini Sisksa and Taittereya prathisakhya, Mandra tone comes out from chest, Madhya tone is come out from the throat ,Tara tone is come from the head.

Paniniya Siksa says that in the morning the hymns should be uttered with a voice from the chest ( low) which is deep toned as the growl of atiger, in the afternoon, it should be read with a voice from the throat (medium) which will be like that of a cakravaka bird, and in the evening it should be recited in the high pitch from the head (high) which will sound like the tone of peacock or hamsa. The terms Mandra ,Madhya, and Tara are used here in the sense of intensity and quality.

The ancient texts of Bharat, Naarad, Sharangdev have written about the good and bad qualities. Bharat has written about gayak, gaayika, vansh vaadak and Narad has written about good and bad qualities of gaan. It is written in the shastras that everyone should possess the knowledge of Gun-Dosh as it will help improve one’s knowledge and performance. 

In Yagnavalka Siksha and Paniniya Siksha, Narada Siksha gives the following ten merits for Gaaanam which means the chanting. 

1. Vyaktam 

   1. Clear and effective articulation of the word content in both phonetic and grammatical structure

2. Purnam 

   1. Completeness in the union of syllable, word and prosody and in filling this with Swar and Shruti i.e. tonal content to the optimal best.

3. Prasannam

   2. 1. Expression without faltering, stammering or hesitation

4. Sukumaram 

   1. Delicacy in diction in soft syllabic and tone material

5. Alankaaram

   1. Use of embellishments

6. Samam

   1. Appropriate dynamics such as crescendo and diminuendo.

7. Raktam

   1. Merging of voice with the flute and Veena.

8. Sthaanaasanam- (Three Sthaanaas of Voice, the chest, Throat and head)

9. Vikrushtam 

   1. Fullness in expression in both upper and lower octaves and in slow and fast rhythm

10. Madhuram

    1. Natural richness in charming words, syllables and quality

Regarding the dosah or demerits of the voice or reciters, Yagnavalkya Siksah advocates the following fourteen factors as demerits 

1. Shankitam (shyness) 

2. Bheetam (fear) 

3. Udrushtam (very loud tone) 

4. Avyaktam ( indistinctness) 

5. Saunaasikam ( nasality) 

6. Kakasvaram (throastiness ) 

7. Shirsigatam (thin voice) 

8. Sthan vivarjitam (tone production in incorrect svarasthanas) 

9. Visvaram (harshness) 

10. Virasam (ugly) 

11. Vislishtam (unevenness) 

12. Visamaahatam ( undue separation of words) 

13. Vyakulam (hastiness) 

14. Talahinam (lack of rhythmical ability).

Narada Siksha adds the the following as demerits Recitation in an undertone, Indistinct articulation, Use of very quick ,Very slow tempo, Hoarseness, Recitation in a sing – song manner, Shouty voice, Omission of words and syllables Very thin voice and Nasality

Bharata Muni is the first known authority to deal with voice qualities in Indian music. He describes six of these qualities:

1. Shraavaka is audible at distance.

2. Ghana is dense (not hollow).

3. Snigdha is voice which is not rough, dry, parched.

4. Madhura is pleasing to the mind.

5. Avadhaana (attention) is exact intonation, neither underpitched no overpitched.

6. Tristhanashobhi is sweet tone uniformly in all the three registers

He describes a singer as possessed of a pure, unctuous, sweet-tone-enriched voice, expert in Laya, Tala, Kalaapaata, Pramaana, faultless, sweet, continuous, even, appealing, auspicious voice.

Sharangdeva treats the subject on voice more comprehensively. He describes as many as fifteen

elements of voice quality

1. Mrushta is pleasing to the ear (sensuous).

2. Madhura (is sweet and) remains undistorted (and without broadening) in the three registers.

3. Chehaala is high pitched, mature (bold), neither thick nor thin, sweet, appealing, polished and compact; it is possessed by female voices and till puberty in male voices (the difference in quality between the male, female voice was ascribed in medieval India to the development of a special bone or cartilage in the larynx in the male at adolescence which caused the voice to 'break'.)

4. Tristhaanaka is uniform in lustre etc. throughout the three registers.

5. Sukhaavaha is pleasing to the mind.

6. Pracura is heavy, thick.

7. Komala is tender like the voice of the koil.

8. Gaadha is strong.

9. Sraavaka (clearly) audible afar.

10. Karuna illumines the listener's mind with pathos or compassion.

11. Ghana is compact, dense, audible afar.

12. Snigdha is audible afar, neither thick nor thin, not harsh or rough, is unctuous.

13. Slakshana is smooth, polished, continuous like the strand of oil.

14. Raktiyukta is full of appeal, generates attraction.

15. Chavimaan is faultless, lustrous.

Sharangdeva borrows the concepts of ten qualities of song i.e. singing, from Naradiya Shiksha but modifies them or adopts them from the view point of music.

1. Vyakta is clarity in articulation of syllable, word, Swar and Raga

2. Purna is being replete with (all) organs of the song, with Gamaka and n prosodical structure.

3. Prasanna is instantaneous intelligibility of meaning.

4. Sukumaarataa is tenderness of voice.

5. Alankruta  is extensivity in the three registers.

6. Sama is equitable distribution of registers in syllabic (? melodic phraseoloy) content and in rhythm content.

7. Surakta is complete fusion of voice with the tones of the Veena and the flute.

8. Slakshana is smoothness in (all) the registers and (all) the tempi.

9. Vikrishta is high-pitched pronunciation.

10. Madhura has abundant charm and popular appeal.

In the list of demerits of a voice he mentions, as lacking in resonance, harshness (dryness, roughness or brittleness) lacking in appeal (i.e. in colouring the mind), hollowness, distortion in intonation (Vaisvarata), thinness (reediness), grating (Karkasha)

the idea of “Voice”, and aspects of what is correct and incorrect, has been discussed at length in many Sanskrit texts.

1. https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/57975

2. https://shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/handle/10603/7570