Compelling Policy Question: What should be the goals of American Foreign Policy, to advance American interests, or American ideals?

Policy Case Study:

S.2295 "To Temporarily Provide for the Administration of the Affairs of Civil Government in the Philippine Islands” (modified)

Section 1. the President of the United States creates the Philippine Commission and gives the Commission the powers of government.

Sec. 3. For as long as armed resistance continues in the Philippines, the President will control commerce with and within said Islands,

Sec. 4. That all inhabitants of the Philippine Islands are citizens of the Philippine Islands and are entitled to the protection of the United States,

Sec. 5. No law on the Islands shall deprive any person of life, liberty, or property without due process, or deny to any person equal protection of the laws. Habeas corpus shall not be suspended, unless in cases of rebellion, insurrection, or danger to the public safety may require it.

Sec. 6. When the existing insurrection in the Philippines ends and peace is established, the President shall order a census of the Philippines.

Sec. 7. Two years after the census, if peace and recognition of the authority of the United States over the Philippines has continued, the Commission will hold an election to create a popular assembly of the people of the Philippine Islands, to be called the Philippine Assembly. The Philippine Commission's powers shall be given to the Assembly.

Sec. 8. The Assembly shall send two Commissioners to the United States.

Sec. 12. Property gained in the Philippines by the United States under the treaty with Spain, are to be used for the benefit of the people of the islands

Sec. 86. All laws passed by the Government of the Philippine Islands shall be reported to Congress, which then has the power to annul the laws.

Historical Context of S. 2295 (source)

In 1521 the Philippines were claimed as a Spanish Colony by Ferdinand Magellan, however, the Philippines were not successfully conquered by the Spanish until 1570. In 1896, the Filipino, Andrés Bonifacio called for the Philippine people to revolt against Spain. In 1897 Emilio Aguinaldo is elected president and creates a Philippine revolutionary constitution. By December of 1897 Spain had negotiated an end to the revolution. Spain paid the revolutionists the sum of 800,000 pesos, and exiled Aguinaldo to Hong Kong.

On April 25, 1898 the U.S. Congress declares war on Spain, and in May the U.S. Navy defeated the Spanish Navy in Manila Bay of the Philippines. On May 24th, after being invited by the U.S. to return from exile to the Philippines, Aguinaldo sets up a dictatorial government with himself as dictator. On May 25, the first U.S. troops were sent to the Philippine Islands.

In June the American Anti-imperialist League is organized to oppose U.S. annexation of the Philippines. Its members include a number of very famous people including Mark Twain, and very wealthy people such as Andrew Carnegie.

By August, the U.S. and Spain sign a Protocol of Peace, ending the fighting. In October the Spanish and United States Commissioners meet in Paris to negotiate a Treaty. Felipe Agoncillo, representative of President Aguinaldo, argues in Washington, that the Philippine Independence movement deserved representation in the Peace negotiations. His request was rejected.

As part of the Treaty of Peace signed between Spain and America in December of 1898, Spain sells America the Philippines for $20,000,000. After America takes possession of the Philippines, President William McKinley issued his Benevolent Assimilation Proclamation instructing the American occupying army to use force, as necessary, to impose American sovereignty (rule).

Aguinaldo, who became president of the Philippines, condemns "violent and aggressive seizure" by the U.S. and threatened war in a response proclamation. On February 4th, the Philippine Insurrection began against the United States forces in the Philippines, following the killing of three Filipino soldiers by U.S. forces in Manila. Two days later the U.S. Senate ratified the Treaty of Paris by a vote of 52 to 27, giving the U.S. possession of the Philippines.

In 1899, despite the ongoing rebellion by Filipinos, the United States establishes the "Philippine Commission" to issue laws for the Philippines.

In March of 1901, U.S. forces capture Emilio Aguinaldo. Later, he declared allegiance to the United States.

In 1902 S.2295 was be voted on.

Section #1 Guiding Question: Why do some people believe American Foreign Policy should advance American interests?

In 1902, a Republican Senator from Wisconsin named Henry Allen Cooper delivered a speech to Congress on S.2295. In his speech, he said...

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Cooper was the Chair of the Committee on Insular Affairs- dealing with the lands gained in the Treaty of Paris. His biography

We are in the Philippines to fulfill a duty which we owe to ourselves, to the people of the islands, and to the cause of civil liberty everywhere. We are in the islands to secure liberty and the benefits of civilization to a downtrodden race.

Our opponents yell that our policy is a violation of liberty. They call us imperialists. They suggest in four years we leave the islands without regard to future consequences. The Filipino people need a stable government under the guidance of America, teaching them about individual liberty and self-government.

It is the duty of the United States to establish there a government and gradually give the people more and more rights to govern themselves, and only then further action may be taken.

This bill is a solution to the problems in the Philippines. Whether we succeed or fail in these islands, the results will forever affect the prestige of this Republic, and ultimately, the whole human race. We should remember who we are. If we fail in the Philippines, our failure will be seen by all the world, forever.

We will plant firmly the principles of free government and fix forever guaranties of civil and religious liberty. We will emancipate a race and lead them to civilization. And then, when the Philippine Islands are peaceful, we who participate in this legislation will look back, with hearts filled with pride, and say, “Thank God, we did our part in the glorious work of a people's redemption.”

“Well I hardly know which to take first!”, Boston Globe, 1898

Library of Congress Summary

Louis Dalrymple, Smashed!, Puck, 1899

Library of Congress Summary Emilio Aguinaldo riding on a rocking horse labeled "Dictatorship" next to a large sword labeled "Aguinaldo" on the Philippines.

In 1900, Judge Magazine published a cartoon by Emil Flohri titled, “AND, AFTER ALL, THE PHILIPPINES ARE ONLY THE STEPPING-STONE TO CHINA”.

Uncle Sam, carrying products of modern civilization, uses the Philippines as a stepping-stone to get across the Pacific to China (represented by a small man with open arms)

Charles L. Bartholomew, “It Makes a Difference”, Minneapolis Journal. 1898

Caption: “Uncle Sam to Little Aguinaldo -- See Here Sonny, Whom Are You Going to Throw Those Rocks At?

Louis Dalrymple, “He Can’t Let Go” Puck, 1898

Library of Congress summary

Keppler, Udo J., It’s up to Them, Puck 1901

Library of Congress Summary

Uncle Sam offering on one hand a soldier and on the other a "School Teacher" to a group of reluctant Filipinos, telling them that the choice is theirs.

Udo J. Keppler, The dream of the anti-expansionist, Puck, 1899

Library of Congress Summary

Udo J. Keppler, "Through peace to happiness", Puck, 1899

Library of Congress Summary

Victor Gillam, “He Wouldn’t Take it any other way”, Judge, 1899

Library of Congress Summary

Grant Hamilton, The Filipino’s First Bath, Judge, 1899

Explanation of "The Filipino's First Bath":

President William McKinley scrubs a Filipino with a brush labeled “Education” in the cleansing waters of “Civilization”.

A freshly scrubbed Cuba and Porto Rico in the background are donning new clothes decorated with the U.S. stars and stripes

Charles L. Bartholomew, Breaking New Ground, Minneapolis Journal 1898

Pioneer Uncle Sam plows Civilization into the Philippine Field behind horses labeled Justice and Humanity

Caption: “Uncle Sam, Having Put His Hand to the Plow Cannot Turn Back”

Section Two Supporting Question: Why do some people believe American Foreign Policy should advance American ideals?

In 1899, the leader of the Filipino revolutionaries, Emilio Aguinaldo wrote a letter to the American people from the Central Filipino Committee. That letter said...

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God Almighty knows how unjust the war the Imperial arms of America started against our unfortunate country is! If the honest American patriots knew the truth, we are sure they would, stop this unspeakable horror.

After helping us in the war against Spain, the guns of the United States were turned upon us. We were called traitors and rebels; you destroyed the homes to which you had been welcomed as honored guests, you killed thousands of your former allies, mutilating our old men, our women and our children, and watering with blood and the beautiful soil of our Fatherland.

In some cases American Imperialism is treating us worse than the despotic cruel Spanish government. We are being denied many of the liberties which you already enjoyed before you revolted against British domination.

Why do the Imperialists wish to rule us? What do they plan to do with us? Do they expect us to surrender -- to give up our inalienable rights, our homes, our properties, our lives, our future destinies, to the absolute control of the United States? Will you allow us to take part in your elections? Will you let us send Senators and Representatives to your Congress? Would you allow us to become a state? Or, would you tax us without representation?

In 1900, William Jennings Bryan said in a speech at the Democratic National Convention titled, "The Paralyzing Influence of Imperialism"...

(modified/link to original) This speech was delivered at the Democratic National Convention Held in Kansas City, Mo. William Jennings Bryan had run for President in 1896 on the "Bi-metalism"/"Free Silver" platform and lost to William McKinley.

"What is our title to the Philippine Islands? Do we hold them by treaty or by conquest? Did we buy them or did we take them? If governments get their just powers from the consent of the governed, it is impossible to secure title to people, either by force or by purchase.

When we made allies of the Filipinos and armed them to fight against Spain, we disputed Spain's title to rule the Philippines. If we buy Spain's title, we are not innocent purchasers.

There can be no doubt that we accepted and utilized the services of the Filipinos and that when we did so we had full knowledge that they were fighting for their own independence. History has no example of such a horrible behavior than ours if we decide to substitute our yoke for the Spanish yoke."

Senator George Hoar, (R)Massachusetts, No Constitutional Power to Conquer Foreign Nations and Hold Their People in Subjugation Against Their Will, 1899 (modified/link to original)

When you raise the flag over the Philippine Islands as a symbol of domination and acquisition you take it down from Independence Hall.

The power to conquer and create colonies is not in the Constitution. This power our forefathers and their descendants hated and feared. They would have cut off their right hands before giving the government this power.

The power to conquer foreign peoples and hold them in subjugation is not necessary for the accomplishment of the purposes declared by the constitution. …

You can not subjugate them and govern them against their will because you think it is for their good, when they do not; because you think you are going to give them the blessings of liberty. You have no right at the cannon’s mouth to impose on an unwilling people your Declaration of Independence and your Constitution and your notions of freedom and of what is good.

In 1898, Life Magazine published a cartoon by Francis Gilbert Attwood titled “Columbia is by No Means Enthusiastic by This Transaction”.

Uncle Same hands a bag of labelled $10,000,000 to Spain to purchase islands after the Spanish American War while the Native Islander stands by in Chains.

In 1900, the artist Victor Gillam drew a cartoon for Judge Magazine titled "Think It Over. All this for politics—is civilization advancing?".

The violence of war is displayed on a battlefield littered with dead soldiers of many nationalities that stretches from contemporary wars—here, the “Philippines” and “Transvaal” (Boer War)—back through time to “Roman Wars.”

Life magazine published a cartoon by Frederick Thompson Richards titled " A Red-Letter Day" in 1900.

The Stranger: "How long have you been civilized?"

The Native, "Ever since my home was burned to the ground and my wife and children shot."

The artist William Bengough drew a cartoon titled “Fun for the Boys” for Life Magazine in 1900.

Text on the wall: "Declaration of Dependence. We bought the Filipinos for $20,000.00. Therefore, we hold these lies to be self-evident that all brown men are created unequal; that they are endowed, by their buyers with certain unalienable wrongs that among these are death, captivity, and pursuit. That to secure these wrongs, governments are instituted among Filipinos deriving their just powers from the consent of the undersigned. Old Daddy Washington is a has-been. Me, Mac, and Teddy. "

First Filipino: "What's the matter?" Second Filipino: "Been takin' another of those blamed lessons in the progress of civilization." , Life magazine, 1899

In 1898 the artist Charles Breen Bush created a cartoon titled “Civilization Begins at Home” for the The World Magazine.

President McKinley looks at a map of the Philippines while Lady Justice holds back a curtain showing violence towards African Americans, including one person being lynched.

Artist William H. Walker drew a cartoon titled "Liberty Halts American Butchery in the Philippines" for Life Magazine in 1899.

Caption: Liberty: “Stop this bloody work, Sam! He is the one who is fighting for me!”

What were the results of the debate?

In 1899 the Treaty of Paris was signed giving United States Possession of the Philippine islands, but from 1899 to 1902 Filipino Revolutionaries fought a war against the United States trying to win their Independence from the United States. In that war more than 4,000 American soldiers, and nearly 20,000 Filipino fighters died in the fighting. An estimated 200,000 Filipino civilians died during the war, mainly of disease or hunger. In 1902, while some Filipinos were still resisting American rule, Congress passed S.2295. The Bill became known as the Philippine Organic Act, or Cooper Act, creating a plan for a Filipino Government under the supervision of the American Congress. In 1907, the Philippine Assembly is elected under US rule. United States pledges to give the Philippines independence in 1916. However, in 1916 the Jones Act is passed, which delayed Philippine independence until a "stable government" was established.

During World War Two Japan takes over the Philippines. In 1944 the US Military helps free the Philippines from Japanese control. After the war ends America decides to give the Islands full independence, and the islands are renamed the Republic of the Philippines. As a sign of thanks, the Republic of the Philippines gives the U.S. land for military bases on the islands. In 1951 the United States and Philippines sign a treaty with both agreeing to help each other in case the other is attacked (Mutual Defense Treaty).

There are currently more than four million U.S. citizens of Philippine ancestry in the United States, and more than 220,000 U.S. citizens living in the Philippines. The United States has provided over $143 million in assistance to the people of the Philippines after a Typhoon hit the country in 2013. The United States and the Philippines have an economic relationship worth over $25 billion.