International Police Powers- The Roosevelt Corollary
Compelling Policy Question: Does America have a responsibility to exercise International Police Power?
It is not true that the United States feels any land hunger.... All that this country desires is to see the neighboring countries stable, orderly, and prosperous.... If a nation shows that it knows how to act with decency it need fear no interference from the United States. Chronic wrongdoing ... (may) ultimately require intervention by some civilized nation, and in the Western Hemisphere ... the Monroe Doctrine may force the United States to the exercise of an international police power.
Historical Context of American Foreign Policy:
Early Policy of Neutrality
America won independence from Great Britain in 1783. America had to make its first major foreign policy decision only ten years later when France, who helped America win Independence and had a treaty with America, asked for the U.S.’ help in France’s war with England. George Washington had his Attorney General Edmund Randolph write a proclamation of neutrality, saying the U.S. would not take a side in the war, and advised American citizens to stay out of the conflict as well. The Proclamation said, “the duty and interest of the United States require, that they should with sincerity and good faith adopt and pursue a conduct friendly and impartial toward the belligerent powers… [I] warn the citizens of the United States carefully to avoid all acts and proceedings whatsover, which may in any manner tend to contravene such disposition [neutrality].”
In 1796 George Washington’s Farewell Address, he again spoke about neutrality. He said, “Observe good faith and justice towards all nations; cultivate peace and harmony with all… The great rule of conduct for us in regard to foreign nations is in extending our commercial relations, to have with them as little political connection as possible… Why forego the advantages of so peculiar a situation? Why quit our own to stand upon foreign ground?”
America’s first wars as a new country
Beginning with the second President John Adams, the United States military is engaged in various conflicts, some internationally, some closer to home. 1797 the U.S. fights undeclared naval war with France. From 1801 to 1805, during Thomas Jefferson’s presidency, the Barbary Wars are fought after Pirates from North Africa attack American merchant ships in the Mediterranean. During the 19th Century the United States uses its military against Native Americans on a regular basis, often taking the Native’s land after doing so. In 1803 the United States makes the Louisiana Purchase from France. In 1812 the United States goes to war with Great Britain over a number of issues, including treatment of U.S. sailors, and territory disputes. Great Britain invades the United States, but ultimately the U.S. fights Great Britain to a draw and the war ends, but the U.S. gains more territory as a result. In 1816 another war is fought with the Barbary Pirates. In 1817 General General Andrew Jackson is sent by President James Monroe to fight the Seminole Indians in Florida. Jackson attacked the Seminoles, destroyed their villages, and overthrew the Spanish governor.
America’s position towards European colonies in the Western Hemisphere
In the early 1800’s many European colonies in Central and South America had Independence revolutions against their European imperial powers (Spain and Portugal). The United States was first to acknowledge the newly formed countries. In 1823 President James Monroe gave a speech to Congress which put forward an idea known as the “Monroe Doctrine”. It said;
“[A]s a principle in which the rights and interests of the United States are involved, that the American continents, by the free and independent condition which they have assumed and maintain, are henceforth not to be considered as subjects for future colonization by any European powers. . .
It is only when our rights are invaded or seriously menaced that we resent injuries or make preparation for our defense...
We... consider any attempt on [European Powers] part to extend their system to any portion of this hemisphere as dangerous to our peace and safety. With the existing colonies or dependencies of any European power we have not interfered and shall not interfere. But with the Governments who have declared their independence and maintain it... we could not view any interposition for the purpose of oppressing them... as the manifestation of an unfriendly disposition toward the United States.
It is still the true policy of the United States to leave the parties to themselves, in hope that other powers will pursue the same course. . . .”
America expands its territory through war and treaties
During the rest of the 19th Century the United States gradually expanded its territory though wars and treaties. In the 1820’s the Mexican government began encouraging American citizens to move into the Mexican province of Tejas. By 1830, these American settlers had become unhappy with the Mexican Government, and in 1836 they declared their independence and fought the Texas Revolution. Mexico refused to recognize their independence. In 1845 the United States annexed the Republic of Texas, which led the the start of the Mexican-American war in 1846. The war lasted two years, and led the United States military invading Mexico. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed in 1848. Under the Treaty, Mexico gave some of its Northern Territories to the United States, including what would become California, New Mexico, and Arizona, as well as accepting the independence of Texas. The U.S. paid $15 million to Mexico to pay for the damage caused in Mexico by the war, and to settle the debts American citizens owed to the Mexican government. The Rio Grande became the border between the United States and Mexico.
In 1867 America Purchased Alaska for 7.2 Million dollars. In 1878 America made a treaty with the island of Samoa - beginning of American expansion in Pacific Ocean. In 1893 American soldiers support a revolution in Hawaii led by American businessmen. They remove the native queen from power and the American Government refuses to return it to her. Hawaii annexed by United States Congress in 1900
The War with Spain & its consequences
In 1898 the United States sends the Navy Ship the Maine to Cuba for debated reasons. The Maine explodes and Spain and America go to war. The United States wins the war against Spain and in the Treaty of Paris Spain gives America the islands of Puerto Rico, Guam and the allows the U.S. to purchase the Philippines for $20 million. Cuba is given independence.
After the United States purchase the Philippines in the Treaty of Paris for Twenty million dollars, the Filipino resistance movement, which had been fighting for independence from Spain, begins fighting a war against American occupation. Resistance ends in 1902.
In 1900 The American Anti-Imperialist League is founded. The group is made up of famous Americans such as Mark Twain, as well as a few very wealthy individuals such as Andrew Carnegie.
Crisis in Venezuela
During the 1800’s, many European countries, and citizens, had invested in South America, believing developing economies there would become valuable. However, two civil wars in the 1890’s in the country of Venezuela led to that country’s government being unable to pay its debts, as well as pay for the damages to foreign owned property in Venezuela. As a result, Venezuela President Cipriana Castro announced Venezuela would not pay back those debts, or pay for the damages. In response to this the United Kingdom, Germany, and Italy created a naval blockade around Venezuela from 1902 and 1903 preventing Venezuela from being able to trade with other countries.
Section One Guiding Question: Why do some people believe America has the responsibility to exercise a "Police Power" in the Western Hemisphere?
On December 6, 1904, President Theodore Roosevelt sent his annual message to Congress, which read...
Our interests and those of our southern neighbors are in reality identical…. We would interfere with them only in the last resort…. [E]very nation, whether in America or anywhere else … must ultimately realize that the right of … independence can not be separated from the responsibility of making good use of it.
In asserting the Monroe Doctrine … we have acted in our own interest as well as in the interest of humanity….
Ordinarily it is very much wiser and more useful for us to concern ourselves with striving for our own … betterment here at home…. We have plenty of sins of our own to war against…. There must be no effort made to remove the mote from our brother’s eye if we refuse to remove the beam from our own….
Thomas Jefferson was friends with James Monroe, so when James Monroe was president he wrote Jefferson, a former president, asking for his advice.
The question in the letters you have sent me, is the most important I have been asked since our declaration of Independence. That question made us a nation, this question will determine our future.
Our first and fundamental rule should be, never to entangle ourselves in the problems of Europe. Our second, never to allow Europe to become involved in events across the Atlantic.
North and South America have different interests than different from Europe. The Americas should have their own system, separate from Europe. While Europe is becoming ruled by despotism, we should make our hemisphere that of freedom.
I could honestly support your Doctrine, if we don’t try to take over any other lands. We also should not stand in the way of any arrangement between them and their mother country; but that we will oppose the forcible actions of any other power to conquest in the Americas.
While I have been uninvolved with politics for so long, this question is so important for our future, it brings back the interest I have felt on such occasions, it makes me still wish to contribute my abilities towards anything which may be useful to our country.
Root was the American Secretary of State when he gave this speech in Brazil to representatives from countries in South America.
We wish for no victories but those of peace; for no territory except our own; for no sovereignty except the sovereignty over ourselves.
We deem the independence and equal rights of the smallest and weakest member of the family of nations entitled to as much respect as those of the greatest empire, and we deem observance of that respect the chief guaranty of the weak against the oppression of the strong.
We neither claim nor desire any rights, or privileges, or powers that we do not freely concede to every American Republic.
We wish to increase our prosperity, to expand our trade, to grow in wealth, in wisdom, and in spirit, but our conception of the true way to accomplish this is not to pull down others and profit by their ruin, but to help all friends to a common prosperity and a common growth, that we may all become greater and stronger together.
Philander C. Knox was the Secretary of State of the United States, Nicaragua is a country in Latin America, their President was attending this speech.
Mr. President, I understand you and some in the other Republics of Latin-America worry about the true motives and purposes of the United States under the Monroe Doctrine.
I beg to assure you my Government does not want an inch of territory South of the Rio Grande. Our policy is to assist in the maintenance of republican governments upon this hemisphere.
We are anxious that the experiment of a government of the people, for the people and by the people, shall not fail in any Republic on this continent.
We know there are threats to all American Republics from across the sea. We also desire that there shall be no failure to maintain a republican form of government from falling apart because of problems in the country. So we will always be willing to help these countries in any way we can to help preserve the stability of our sister American Republics.
In 1905, Judge Magazine published a cartoon by Louis Dalrymple titled "The World's Constable".
Library of Congress Summary of "The World's Constable"
In 1904, the New York Herald published a cartoon by W.A. Rogers titled “The Big Stick in the Caribbean Sea”.
President Theodore Roosevelt enforcing his concept of the Monroe Doctrine by having a U.S. naval flotilla steam from one Caribbean port to another.
In 1896, Judge Magazine published a cartoon by Victor Gillam titled, "Keep off! The Monroe Doctrine must be respected".
Explanation of Gilliam's cartoon: "Uncle Sam" is an armed soldier, standing between European powers (Britain, France, Germany, Spain and Portugal) and Nicaragua and Venezuela.
The sign next to Uncle Sam reads “No Trespass. America for Americans- Uncle Sam”
Homer Davenport, “Accepting the Monroe Doctrine: John Bull gratefully admits that Uncle Sam is the proper custodian of the Western Hemisphere.” Review of Reviews, 1902,
Why do some people oppose American policies that exercise a “Police Power” in the Western Hemisphere?)
Darío was a Nicaraguan poet, who traveled throughout South America and promoted a modern Spanish-American Literary movement.
¡Es con voz de la Biblia, o verso de Walt Whitman,
que habría que llegar hasta ti, Cazador!
Primitivo y moderno, sencillo y complicado,
con un algo de Washington y cuatro de Nemrod.
Eres los Estados Unidos,
eres el futuro invasor
de la América ingenua que tiene sangre indígena,
que aún reza a Jesucristo y aún habla en español.
Eres soberbio y fuerte ejemplar de tu raza;
eres culto, eres hábil; te opones a Tolstoy.
Y domando caballos, o asesinando tigres,
eres un Alejandro-Nabucodonosor.
(Eres un profesor de energía,
como dicen los locos de hoy.)
Crees que la vida es incendio,
que el progreso es erupción;
en donde pones la bala
el porvenir pones.
No.
Los Estados Unidos son potentes y grandes.
Cuando ellos se estremecen hay un hondo temblor
que pasa por las vértebras enormes de los Andes.
Si clamáis, se oye como el rugir del león.
Ya Hugo a Grant le dijo: «Las estrellas son vuestras».
(Apenas brilla, alzándose, el argentino sol
y la estrella chilena se levanta...) Sois ricos.
Juntáis al culto de Hércules el culto de Mammón;
y alumbrando el camino de la fácil conquista,
la Libertad levanta su antorcha en Nueva York.
Mas la América nuestra, que tenía poetas
desde los viejos tiempos de Netzahualcoyotl,
que ha guardado las huellas de los pies del gran Baco,
que el alfabeto pánico en un tiempo aprendió;
que consultó los astros, que conoció la Atlántida,
cuyo nombre nos llega resonando en Platón,
que desde los remotos momentos de su vida
vive de luz, de fuego, de perfume, de amor,
la América del gran Moctezuma, del Inca,
la América fragante de Cristóbal Colón,
la América católica, la América española,
la América en que dijo el noble Guatemoc:
«Yo no estoy en un lecho de rosas»; esa América
que tiembla de huracanes y que vive de Amor,
hombres de ojos sajones y alma bárbara, vive.
Y sueña. Y ama, y vibra; y es la hija del Sol.
Tened cuidado. ¡Vive la América española!
Hay mil cachorros sueltos del León Español.
Se necesitaría, Roosevelt, ser Dios mismo,
el Riflero terrible y el fuerte Cazador,
para poder tenernos en vuestras férreas garras.
Y, pues contáis con todo, falta una cosa: ¡Dios!
Portales was a Chilean politician.
The newspapers report favorably on the progress of revolution in the Americas. It seems almost confirmed that the United States recognizes the independence of Latin America. Although I have not discussed it with anyone, I shall tell you what I think about the matter.
President Monroe has stated, “ It is a recognized fact that America is for Americans.” Let us be careful not to escape on domination only to fall under another!
We must distrust those people who wholeheartedly approve the struggle of our freedom fighters without having helped us at all. This is precisely the reasons for my fear. Why the haste with which the United States recognizes Latin American independence without having done anything to actually help the revolution?
This is indeed a strange way of doing things, my friend!
I believe that all this is in accordance with the plan to conquer the Americas, using not just their military, but their others powers as well. It may not happen now but it will surely happen in the not too distant future.
Let us not be enticed by sweets as children are, without thinking that they might be poisoned.
In 1905, the artist Louis Dalrymple drew a cartoon titled “Expansion! The Western patrol’s long stretch.”
"President Roosevelt’s Forthcoming Feast - A South American View of the Latest Applications of the Monroe Doctrine", Sucesos, Valparaíso, Chile
Explanation of "Roosevelt's forthcoming feast", by the Opper Project from Ohio State University: This cartoon from a newspaper in Chile is a response to the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine. The Monroe Doctrine was designed keep Europeans out of the Americas. President Theodore Roosevelt’s Corollary declared the United States as the head and enforcer of the Americas. The cartoonist depicts Roosevelt standing in front of the “Casa Blanca” (White House) and preparing to slaughter a large turkey with feathers labeled with South and Central American countries. The chopping block is labeled “America para los Americanos” (America for the Americans).
L.D. Bradley, As His Critics See Him, Chicago Daily News
What were the results of the debate?
While United Kingdom, Germany, and Italy's blockade did last for multiple years, none of them used their military to invade Venezuela. The European countries did not credit the Roosevelt Corollary for being the reason they did not invade.
The United States was able to convince representatives of the European Powers and Venezuela (Venezuela's representative was America's ambassador to Venezuela) to meet in America to negotiate a settlement for the debts. An agreement was signed in Washington, with Venezuela agreeing to pay their debts, if those the European countries reduced the amount of the debts. The agreement is known as the Washington Protocols.