American Diplomacy and International Agreements Case Study: The League of Nations

Compelling Policy Question: What responsibilities should America prioritize when joining International Agreements?

Policy Case Study: The Covenant of the League of Nations (modified/link to original).

ARTICLE 1.Any State may become a Member of the League if it guarantees it will observe its international obligations, and shall accept the rules created by the League in regard to its military, naval and air forces and armaments.

ARTICLE 4.The Council may deal with any matter affecting the peace of the world. Each Member of the League shall have one vote.

ARTICLE 8. The Members of the League recognise that the maintenance of peace requires the reduction of national armaments to the lowest point consistent with national safety and the enforcement by common action of international obligations.

ARTICLE 10. The Members of the League will respect and protect against aggression the territory and political independence of all Members of the League.

ARTICLE 11. Any war or threat of war is a matter of concern to the whole League, and the League shall take any action to protect the peace of nations.

ARTICLE 12. Any dispute likely to lead to a war they will be settled by the Council.

ARTICLE 14. The League will create a Permanent Court of International Justice.

ARTICLE 17. In the event of a dispute involving a State who is not a Member of the League, the State shall be invited to accept the obligations of membership in the League for the purposes of such dispute, upon such conditions as the Council may deem just.

If the State refuses to accept the obligations of membership in the League, the Council will take measures to prevent hostilities and solve the dispute.

ARTICLE 23. the Members of the League:

(a) will secure fair and humane conditions of labor for men, women, and children, both in their own countries and around the world.

(b) will secure just treatment of the native inhabitants of territories under their control;

(d) will entrust the League with the general supervision of the weapons trade.

(f) will endeavor to take steps in matters of international concern for the prevention and control of disease.

Historical Context:

World War One started as the result of the June 28, 1914 assassination of Austria-Hungary's Archduke Ferdinand by a Serbian. Following the Archduke's assassination, Austria-Hungary prepares for war with Serbia, Russia mobilizes to aid Serbia. In August of 1914 Germany declares war on Russia and France. The Germans march through Belgium to attack France. Bulgaria, Turkey, Germany and Austria-Hungary form the Central Powers. France, England, Russia form Allied Powers.

In August of 1914 President Woodrow Wilson said that the U.S. will stay neutral. However, following the German's sinking of the Lusitania in 1915, and the Zimmerman telegram in 1917, President Wilson asks Congress for declaration of war against Germany saying “The world must be made safe for democracy”. The United States joined the war, and by the time the Germans surrender on November 11, 1918, three million Americans have served in the War. Ten Million soldiers from the different countries died in the war. Ten million civilians died from disease and starvation as a result of the war.

In January of 1919 leaders from countries involved in WW1 meet in Paris for the “Paris Peace Conference” to create a treaty to end World War One.

By June of 1919, The Treaty of Versailles, including the League of Nations is approved and signed by the other countries at the Paris Peace Conference. It is sent back to the United States to be signed.

Supporting Question #1: Why do some people believe the United States should be a part of International Agreements?

In 1919, during his "Hand of God" speech presenting the Treaty of Versailles to Congress, President Woodrow Wilson, said ...

(modified/link to original)

After the end of the fighting of World War One, Wilson went to Paris to help negotiate a treaty to end the war. He worked to incorporate his 14 Points into the treaty. He brought back the Treaty of Versailles to Congress to ask for them to ratify the treaty , Wilson's biography

The United States entered both the war and the peace treaty negotiations as champions of right. At the peace table it was America’s duty to make sure all men might live without fear.

The negotiations brough opportunities to do what statesmen had never been able to do; an opportunity to protect the rights of racial, national, and religious minorities by an international covenant; an opportunity to stop militaries from being mischievous

The people of the world demanded the Conference should create a concert of free nations to make war impossible. A cry went out from homes in every land from which sons and fathers had gone to battle, that such a sacrifice should never again happen.

The united power of free nations must put a stop to aggression, and the world must be given peace.

Statesmen found the League of Nations as the main object of the peace. They saw it as the hope of the world. Shall we or any other free people hesitate to accept this great duty? Dare we reject it and break the heart of the world?

The stage is set, the future is clear. The hand of God has led us this way. We cannot turn back. America shall show the way.

President Woodrow Wilson, September 25, 1919 (Modified/link to original)

My fellow citizens, membership of this great League of Nations is going to include all the great fighting nations of the world, as well as the weak ones. And what do they unite for? They enter into a promise to one another that they will:

1. Never use their power against one another for aggression;

2. Never will violate the territory of a neighbor;

3. Never will interfere with the political independence of a neighbor;

4. Allow great populations to choose their own destiny;

5. Never resort to war without first asking the League of Nations to settle the argument peacefully.

I wish that those who oppose the League of Nations could feel the moral obligation that rests upon us not to turn our backs on the boys who died, but to see the thing through, to see it through to the end and make good their redemption of the world. For nothing less depends upon this decision, nothing less than liberation and salvation of the world.

W.E.B. DuBois, "The League of Nations," Crisis, March, 1921' (modified/link to original)

W.E.B. DuBois was an American Civil Rights activist. His biography

Forty one nations, including nearly every Negro and mulatto and colored government of the world, have met in Geneva and formed the assembly of the League of Nations. This is the most forward looking event of the century. Because of the idiotic way in which the stubbornness of Woodrow Wilson and the political fortunes of the Republicans became involved, the United States was not represented. But despite its tumult and shouting this nation must join and join on the terms which the World lays down. The idea that we single handed can dictate terms to the World or stay out of the World is an idea born of the folly of fools.

J. E. Wright, For the League of Nations, The Evening Missourian, 1919. (modified/link to original)

Any man who tries to mould public opinion against the League of Nations is paving the way to another flood of blood and sacrifice of life and property.

That man has a cold blooded nature and a heart of stone, rather than a heart of sympathy and love for his fellow-men. He would not welcome the day when all nations and languages would unite in the worship of the one living and true God.

This is a question that enters every home in the land and that deeply concerns every man, woman and child.

We must enter a League of Nations, or we must support an enormous army at the expense of the taxpayers. The plan unquestionably is for an advance of civilization and is a step which should be taken at the earliest possible moment.

It would go far toward making peace for the world and, if it does not make war impossible, it will make it very unpleasant for the instigator. It may not eliminate war entirely, but it will reduce the chance of war in the future and start the world on a new era of peace, prosperity and guaranteed liberties

Women's pro-league council, A prayer for the spiritual union of mankind. War has failed to end war. Diplomacy has failed to end war. Only ties of the spirit infallibly unite. Therefore we pray for the divine alliance of nations, [New York 1924].

A PRAYER

For the Spiritual Union of Mankind.

WAR HAS FAILED

TO END WAR.

DIPLOMACY HAS FAILED

TO END WAR.

ONLY TIES OF THE SPIRIT INFALLIBLY UNITE.

Therefore We Pray For

The Divine Alliance of Nations.

Eternal God, Father of All Souls,

Grant unto us such clear vision of the Sin of War

That we may earnestly seek that Co-operation between Nations

Which Alone can make War Impossible.

As man by his inventions has made the whole world

Into One Neighborhood,

Grant that he may, by his co-operations, make the Whole World

Into One Brotherhood.

Help us to break down all race prejudice:

Stay the greed of those who profit by war, and

The ambitions of those who seek an imperialistic conquest

Drenched in Blood.

Guide all Statesmen to seek a Just Basis

For International Action in the Interests of Peace.

Arouse in the Whole Body of the People an Adventurous Willingness,

As they Sacrificed Greatly for War,

So, also, for International Good-Will,

To Dare bravely, Think wisely, Decide resolutely,

And to Achieve Triumphantly. Amen

James D. Phelan (D)California, February 20, 1919 (modified/link to original)

Phelan's biography

All good men will support the League of Nations. I say to those Senators who like to quote Washington’s warning us against international entanglements, “that sounds very good, but 120 years have passed, and the United States in the most powerful nation in the world. So what Washington said at that time does not apply to the United States today.”

Unless this league is established, there is absolutely no hope for democratic Europe; there will be no hope for the men, women, and children, because their best protection is democracy.

The President is bringing home the Treaty of Versailles from Europe.. It is the one reward of the war—not captives, not lands and territory, but peace for all the world. What greater achievement could he have won?...

The League of Nations is civil society. Democracy is a league of men, banded together for mutual protection. And they yield their natural rights to create this democracy. In a league of nations the nations yield some of their rights for the same purpose—their mutual protection. Is there anything wrong with that? Is not the peace of the world worth the sacrifice? Is there anything more terrible than unleashed human beings destroying each other under circumstances of greatest cruelty?

We are disloyal to our ideals if we refuse to let our country enlist in this cause. We are all, by sacrifice and concession, working for a perfect State at home. The league is working for a more perfect world.

Raymond Fosdick, Atlantic Monthly, 1920 (modified)

Fosdick was a wealthy American lawyer who was a lifelong supporter and disciple of Woodrow Wilson. Fosdick served as a special representative of the War Department in France and as a civilian aide to General John J. Pershing. At war’s end Fosdick became the Under-Secretary General to the League of Nations. His biography

The League of Nations has its roots in a popular support far deeper and firmer than shifting governments. To the peasant in France, with the horror of the war seared in his memory, it represents the symbol of a new hope. To the worker, the League's labor office, under the leadership of Albert Thomas, is the promise of a better fortune. The League stands for disarmament, for peace, for international justice, for the protection of backward peoples, for a better standard of living, for the relief of suffering, for the fight against disease, and for all the other forward-looking policies bound up in the longings of mankind for a better world-policies which the people everywhere in Europe, as distinguished from their governments and leaders, are unwaveringly supporting. The people understand the League; at least they know what it aims to accomplish.

Leonard Raven-Hill,The Gap in the Bridge, Punch, 1919

Punch was a British magazine

The New York Tribune published a cartoon by Jay Norwood "Ding" Darling titled "New Devices Ever seemed impractical at first".

Rollin Kirby, The Accuser, World Journal Tribune

David Low, The Flower, the Star, 1919

the Star was a British newspaper

“Looking a Gift Horse in the Mouth”, Beacon, Wichita, KS

*A “gift-horse” is a free horse. The idea in this cartoon is the Senate and the United States are being given the League of Nations for free, but are still criticizing it and not willing to accept it.

"Seein' Things," Brooklyn Eagle, 1919, artist unknown

Jay N. Darling, "The League of Nations Argument In a Nutshell," Des Moines Register, 1919

J.N. Darling, "The One Animal That Wouldn't Go Into The Ark," Des Moines Register, 1920

Cy Hungerford, The Dime Novel, Pittsburgh Sun,

Muzzled?, London Opinion

Nelson Harding, "Pilgrim Landing in America, 1919," Brooklyn Eagle, 1919

Chapin, Strange Bedfellows, St. Louis Star

“There were unbelievers then-there are unbelievers now”, Post-Dispatch (St. Louis, Mo.)

Supporting Question #2: Why do some people believe the United States should NOT be a part of International Agreements?

On August 12, 1919, a Republican Senator from Massachusetts named Henry Cabot said in a speech to the Senate...

(Modified/link to original)

Republican Henry Cabot Lodge was a strong opponent of the Democrat President Woodrow Wilson. He was a member of the Committee on Foreign Relations. Lodge's biography

Mr. President: I can never be anything else but an American, and I must think of the United States first. I have never had but one allegiance - I cannot divide it now. I have loved but one flag and I cannot share that devotion and give affection to the mongrel banner invented for a league. Internationalism is to me horrible.

The United States is the world's best hope, but if you involve her in the fights of other nations, if you tangle her in the problems of Europe, you will destroy her power for good and endanger her very existence. Leave her to march freely through the centuries to come as in the years past.

No doubt many excellent and patriotic people see noble ideals in the words 'league for peace.' We all respect and share these hopes and desires, but some of us see no hope, but rather defeat, for them in this plan. For we, too, have our ideals, even if they are different from theirs.

Our first ideal is our country. Our ideal is to make her ever stronger and better and finer, because in that way alone can she be of the greatest service to the world's peace and to the welfare of mankind

Lawrence Sherman (R)Illinois, Speech to Congress on the League of Nations (modified)

Sherman's biography

After the warring nations signed the armistice that saved Germany from being destroyed, instead of working for a peace where Germany shall pay the penalty of her crimes against mankind, they have spent their time creating a “superstate” with power over all the governments and peoples of nations in the World.

Europe is always explosive. If we vote for this league, we give these people equal power over us. Their vices, mistakes, and crimes will impact us, because we have given them an equal vote in the league with our own country. It will not remove a menace but instead create one beyond our power either to stop or to remove.

The Constitution of the League of Nations is a Pandora’s box of evil to empty upon the American people the chaos of the world.

In Article 10 of the Constitution of the League of Nations the members of the league bind themselves to protect each other. If this article wins our Government, our Military, its people, and its Treasury will have to defend all the countries in the league. We should only involve ourselves in other countries problems when the problem endangers our peace and safety.

This league, sends the angel of death to every American home. If this League is created, conscription will take from all, and we will bear the white man’s burden in every quarter of the world.

William Borah (R)Idaho, Speech in United States Senate, December 6, 1918 (modified/link to original)

Borah's biography

The first proposition connected with the proposed league is that of a tribunal to settle the matters of controversy which may arise between the different nations.

Will anyone advocate that those matters which are of vital importance to our people shall be submitted to a tribunal created other than by our own people and give it an international army subject to its direction and control to enforce its decrees? I doubt if anyone will advocate that.... If you do not do so, Mr. President, what will your league amount to? ...

In its last analysis the proposition is force to destroy force, conflict to prevent conflict, militarism to destroy militarism, war to prevent war. In its last analysis it must be that if it has any sanction behind its judgment at all. There is where the difficulty lies....”

In 1918, John T. McCutcheon's cartoon "Interrupting the Ceremony", was published by the Chicago Tribune.

A minister holding a book titled “League of Nations” about to marry Uncle Sam and a lady wearing a dress labeled “Foreign Entanglements”

The Minister says “If any man can show just cause, why they may not lawfully be joined together let him now speak------”

A man labeled “U.S. Senate” comes breaking through the window carrying paper labeled “Constitutional Rights”

The San Francisco Chronicle published a cartoon by Bronstrup titled “They Won’t Dovetail”.

Cartoon by Georgina N.

Carey Orr had a cartoon published in the Chicago Tribune called "The Prospective Stepfather".

The League of Nations is talking to “Mother Earth” while countries including the United States watch from behind a curtain

Windsor McCay

Burt Randolph Thomas, Not Room For Both, The Chronicle

Winsor McCay's cartoon "If We Were in the League of Nations" published by the Star Company in 1918.

Library of Congress Summary: Uncle Sam watching wounded, crippled and dead soldiers come off ship. John Bull on the ship says, "Hi Sam! Send me over an new Army!"

Winsor McCay's cartoon "Your son will be fighting liquid fire and deadly gas on the battlefields of Europe some day.” published by the Star Company.

What were the results of the Debate?

Despite a number of the major world powers agreeing to form the League of Nations, the United States Congress voted to stay out of the League. As a result of the United States not joining the League of Nations, the organization was weaker. When Germany (who in their anger over the conditions inflicted upon them by the Treaty of Versailles, elected Hitler as their leader) began to break the rules imposed by the League, rather than enforce punishments, the League followed a policy of appeasement. This allowed Hitler to develop Germany into the major military country it became. Following World War Two, the United States led the charge for a new organization similar to the League of Nations called the United Nations. It is still in existence today.