S. J. Res. 78 Authorizing Intervention in the Republic of Mexico

History of relationship between the United States and Mexico.

1810- Mexico first tried to win Independence from Spain in when Father Miguel Hidalgo y Costilla calls for Mexican independence. The rebellion fails, but fighting continues.

1819- The United States and Spain sign the Adam-Onis Treaty.

The United States agrees to Spanish control over California, New Mexico, Texas, and modern Arizona, Nevada, and Utah. Spain sold the United States Florida for $5 million. In 1821 Mexico gains independence from Spain.

In 1830 Mexico makes limitations on immigration from the United States into Texas to stop the flood of English-speaking settlers into Texas. In 1836 Texas declares Independence from Mexico. The Mexican Government tried to stop the Independence movement by sending troops led by Mexican President and General Antonio López de Santa Anna. Santa Anna led the Mexican Army in the Battle of the Alamo, which led to the death of between 182 and 257 Texians, many were killed when they tried to surrender. Davy Crockett and Jim Bowie were among those killed. Months later Santa Anna’s military is defeated by a volunteer Army of Texians, who rallied under the slogan “Remember the Alamo”.

Santa Anna is taken prisoner and signs a treaty recognizing the independence of Texas. In 1845, Congress passes a Joint Resolution annexing Texas. Texas becomes a slave state. Mexico then breaks diplomatic relations with the United States.

In 1846 U.S. President James Polk offers to buy California and New Mexico from the Mexican government and seeks to make the Rio Grande River the border between the two countries, which would make Texas part of the United States. Mexico refuses Polk's offer, and Polk sends military forces to the Rio Grande in retaliation. Following an attack on an American fort in the disputed territory, Congress declares war and the United States military invades Mexico.

After the U.S. military captures Mexico City in 1848 the United States Government signs the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo with Mexico. Under the treaty Mexico to gives present-day Arizona, California, and New Mexico, and parts of Colorado and Nevada to the United States in exchange for a $15 million payment from the U.S. to pay Mexico for damages to Mexican land during the war. The treaty also provides for the protection of the property and civil rights of the roughly eighty thousand Mexican nationals living in U.S. territory.

In 1853, U.S. President Franklin Pierce purchases thirty thousand square miles of land along the Mesilla Valley, which runs from California to El Paso, for $10 million. The Gadsden Purchase resolves a border dispute between Mexico and the United States, and marks the last adjustment to the border between the two countries.

(below map shows territory gained in both the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo, and the Gadsden Purchase)

In 1910, unrest among peasants and urban workers triggers the Mexican Revolution. Emiliano Zapata leads the Revolution in the South and Francisco "Pancho" Villa leads the Revolution the North. In 1911, dictator Porfirio Diaz, is overthrown. Mexican President Francisco Madero assumes power.

In 1913, Mexican President Madero is killed in a coup led by General Victoriano Huerta.

President Wilson refused to recognize Huerta as the leader of Mexico because he believed since he took power through a coup, he was not a legitimate leader. In addition Wilson expanded an embargo on sales of all arms to Mexico- this was an expansion of President Taft's ban on selling weapons only to the Mexican Government. This however did not impact Huerta, because the Government controlled the ports, so they could buy weapons on the international market. Those fighting against Huerta were only able to get weapons from Americans who smuggled them across the border..

In April 1914, nine U.S. soldiers are arrested and detained by Huerta's army for allegedly entering a prohibited zone in Tampico. Mexico apologizes, but U.S. President Woodrow Wilson sends Marines to the port of Veracruz to "obtain from General Huerta and his adherents the fullest recognition of the rights and dignity of the United States." The invasion inflames anti-American sentiment in Mexico, and Huerta flees the capital soon afterward due to ongoing political upheaval.

The United States military occupies Veracruz from April 21, 1914 until November 23, 1914. During the conflict four members of the United States military were killed, compared to 150 Mexicans who were fighting against them.

President Huerta develops into a Military Dictator.

In October of 1913, Huerta sent his soldiers in to shut down Mexico's Congress. They arrested 110 Senators and Deputies, of whom 74 were charged with high treason.

Many Mexicans called Huerta “the Usurper,” and refused to recognize his administration. Many of them declared themselves in revolt.

Leaders of the opposition to Huerta included Venustiano Carranza, Pancho Villa, and Álvaro Obregón, and Emiliano Zapata.

Pressure from both the Mexican forces opposing him, and the international community leads to the overthrow of Huerta on 15 July, 1914.

January 1915, Pancho Villa recruits Americans to join the Mexican Revolution, promising "Gold and Glory" to those who would come help his cause.

The United States recognized the government of General Venustiano Carranza as the official government of Mexico on October 19, 1915.

Pancho Villa was angry the United States Government decided to support Carranza as the official Mexican Government. In January 1916, he kidnapped 18 Americans from a Mexican train and slaughtered them.

January 14, 1916, John D. Works, (R)California, introduced S.J. Resolution 78 to Congress and it is referred to the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations. The Committee on Foreign Relations does not report it to Congress, so there is not vote on the bill.

On the morning of March 9, 1916, Francisco "Pancho" Villa, the infamous general during the Mexican Revolution, crosses the Mexican American border and leads hundreds of Mexicans in an attack on the U.S. town of Columbus, New Mexico. Pancho Villa and his men kill seventeen Americans and burn the town center.

Villa and his men also attacked a United States' Army post named Camp Furlong, located next to the town of Columbus. Ten civilians and eight soldiers were killed in the attack, and two civilians and six soldiers wounded. Sixty-seven of Villa's men were killed.

On March 10th President Woodrow Wilson sent ordered ordered the U.S. Army to go into Mexico to try to capture Poncho Villa. Brigadier General John J. Pershing was selected to lead the expedition.

President Woodrow Wilson released a statement to the press:

An adequate force will be sent at once in pursuit of Villa with the single object of capturing him and putting a stop to his forays. This can and will be done in entirely friendly aid to the constituted authorities in Mexico and with scrupulous respect for the sovereignty of that Republic

On March 15, 1916 the "Punitive Expedition" of four regiments of cavalry, and two of infantry (a total of 6,600 men) crossed the border in pursuit of Villa.

(Below is a picture of Pershing and his men crossing the Rio Grande)

June 22, 1916 John D. Works, (R)California, gives a speech to the Senate explaining why he thinks S.J. Resolution 78 needs to be acted upon. (His speech is below)

John D. Works, (R)California, Speech to Senate on S.J.R. 78, 1916 (modified/link to original)

After serving in the Indiana Volunteer Cavalry during the Civil War, Works became a lawyer, then was a member of Indiana’s State Government. He moved to California and practiced law, but became a county Judge, then a California Supreme Court Judge. He then moved to Los Angeles and became president of the city council. He then was elected to represent California in the Senate. His full Biography.

This matter should not be left to the Executive Department of the Government. Congress should take action. If we are forced to enter Mexico, we should do it under a declaration of Congress. The people in our own country, and in other nations, should know why the United States is taking this important step.

The conditions in Mexico are so bad we can not delay any longer. Up to now the responsibility of dealing with the Mexican situation has been left to the President. He hoped conditions in Mexico would fix themselves without us forcibly interfering. I fear that hope no longer has a foundation. Only Congress has power to declare war, and that is what intervention in Mexico means. Congress should be brave and take responsibility for whatever we do in that unfortunate country.

It is unfair to the President that Congress should sit and do nothing more than to criticize him. Something should be done in this emergency by somebody to fix the situation. American citizens are losing their lives in Mexico every day as the result of the conditions there.

It is not a question whether the President is right or wrong. The question is, what should the American Government do to protect its citizens in Mexico?

S. J. Res. 78 Authorizing Intervention in the Republic of Mexico (modified/link to original)

The Republic of Mexico is and has been for a long time without a government. As a consequence her territory has been devastated, her laws broken, her people robbed, murdered and driven from their homes and their property destroyed.

In addition, American citizens in Mexico have been murdered and robbed, their wives and daughters violated, and their property confiscated and destroyed. It is the duty of this Government to protect its citizens in their lives, their liberty, and their property at home and abroad:

Be it Resolved...The President of the United States is hereby authorized and directed to intervene in the Republic of Mexico for the protection of the lives and property of American citizens in Mexico, and for the establishment and maintenance of a stable government in Mexico to protect the lives, the liberty, the independence, and the property of its people.

The President, as Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy, is hereby authorized and directed to use the Military to carry out the purposes listed above.

When a stable government is established in Mexico, one that can protect the rights of both Mexicans and foreigners, it shall be the duty of the President and of Congress to turn control over the government to the people of Mexico, if they guarantee to protect American citizens and citizens of other nations in Mexico.

Benigno Cárdenas Hernandez (R)New Mexico, Speech to House of Representatives on Affairs in Mexico, and Pancho Villa, 1916 (modified/link to original)

Benigno Hernández was the first Hispanic American from New Mexico elected to the U.S. House of Representatives. He was a businessman who entered local politics as a clerk, then a county sheriff. He was elected to Congress two years after New Mexico was changed from a Territory to a State. His full biography.

I speak for the people of New Mexico upon the recent raid and outrage committed by a dangerous group of Mexicans in our State. It has about reached a point where having patience is no longer acceptable. The people of New Mexico all demand that those murderers shall be caught and punished.

The people of New Mexico on the border have been suffering like the people of Texas, like the people of Arizona. If the Mexico’s President Carranza is unable to take care of conditions down there we should act. If the Mexican government is unable to stop their people from invading our country, we should act.

People from New Mexico have died. Whatever motives Villa may have for committing these attacks upon our people we care nothing about. We assume, however, that they were committed in order to provoke this country into intervention in Mexico.

We must demand Carranza allow our troops into Mexico in order to capture Villa. If he does not we must assume that Carranza himself is not trying to do anything to protect our fellow citizens either in Mexico or on the border.

On that assumption I believe it is about time for us to act.

William R. Smith (D)Texas, Speech to House of Representatives on Affairs in Mexico, 1916 (modified/link to original)

Before being elected to Congress, William R. Smith was a lawyer, and a judge. His full biography.

Thomas Carver, “It’s a long, long way from here to Mexico, 1916 (source)

The lyrics are below the sheet music cover.

Now our nation is at war in the land of Mexico,

the Stars and Stripes have been abused so now we have to go,

to take the bandit Villa whether living or is dead,

the blood of dear Americans is hanging on his head!

It's a long, long way from here to Mexico,

It's a long, long way to go,

But I’ll return to you again then you will gladly know

That Villa is at last out done,

and peace reigns everywhere,

it's a long, long way from here to Mexico, But duty calls me there

Sweetheart dear I hate to go, But duty calls me there,

I'm ready to leave so do not grieve I'm ready to do and dare,

The bandit Villa has gone too far, Our sister's we must avenge

And not till then will I come home for we must be revenged!

It's a long, long way from here to Mexico,

It's a long, long way to go,

But I’ll return to you again then you will gladly know

That Villa is at last out done,

and peace reigns everywhere,

it's a long, long way from here to Mexico, But duty calls me there, It’s a there.

John T. McCutcheon, Our Eyes Are On Them, Chicago Tribune, 1913

Clifford Berryman, "I've Had About enough of This", Washington Evening Star 1916

National Archives Summary of Berryman's cartoon

Luther Daniels Bradley, “The silent vote”, 1916

Lute Pease, Still coming, 1916

Library of Congress Summary: Cartoon shows General John J. Pershing stamping out a nest of rattlesnakes (labeled "Villista," "Bandit," and "Cutthroat"). In 1916, President Wilson sent a Punitive Expedition commanded by Pershing into Mexico to capture the rebel and bandit leader Francisco "Pancho" Villa, who had been raiding American towns. Villa and his band eluded the American force.

Oscar Edward Cesare, Saluting the flag, 1916

Library of Congress Summary of "Saluting the Flag":

Cartoon shows Mexican revolutionary Pancho Villa standing with his sombrero raised in the air and laughing as he fires his pistol at the American flag. The flag flies between two tombstones identified as "Columbus N.M." and "Vera Cruz."

Clifford Kennedy Berryman, “Just to keep things straight”, 1911

McKee Barclay's cartoon of William H. Taft gesturing to Woodrow Wilson to come look over a fence at a raging Mexican bandit while Uncle Sam stands in the distance

Mexican President Carranza, Official Letter of Complaint to the U.S. Government, May 22, 1916 (modified/link to original)

American troops have crossed the border into Mexico. The crossing of these troops, without the permission of the Mexican Government, endangers the United States’ and Mexico’s relationship. This action is a violation of the sovereignty of Mexico.

After Francisco Villa’s band’s raid in Columbus, the Mexican Government offered to work together with the American Government to pursue the bandits.

The Mexican Government understands its obligation to protect the frontier; but this obligation is not just Mexico’s. The American Government has an equal obligation to protect the frontier, but has been unable to do so on the American side.

The raids of outlaws into American territory is terrible, but the Mexican Government is not responsible for them. It is doing everything possible to prevent them.

If additional troops enter Mexico it will be considered an invasion of its territory. Mexico will be forced to defend itself against any American troops which may be found within it.

This was a hostile expedition and a real invasion of our territory. The Mexican Government does not wish war with the United States. If was does occur, it would the United States’ fault.

Luther Daniels Bradley, His one possible excuse, June 19,1916

Luther Daniels Bradley, “Hope, Even Now”, April 17, 1916

Mexico's Good Friend, San Francisco Chronicle, 1914