Introduction to Human Factors

Introduction:

Human factors play a pivotal role in flight instructing. It is not something that flight instructors only need to know, but information that must be transferred to the students. From aeromedical factors to aeronautical decision making, human factors encompass lots of different areas in aviation. The main area this course will focus on in human factors is defense mechanisms. In the Aviation Instructor's Handbook (2020), defense mechanisms include repression, denial, reaction formation, fantasy, projection, compensation, and displacement. These must be studied individually and how they affect not only students but also instructors. How we make decisions is vital to understand and common patterns in what mechanisms students commonly portray. This lesson will introduce human factors in general, specifically going over different areas of the ACS for Flight Instructing, and the importance of understanding human factors well. 

Learning Objectives:

1. Identify three core areas of human factors: aeromedical factors, risk management, and defense mechanisms. 

2. Learn instructional ideas and content in human factors specifically for flight instructors. 

3. Analyze biblical servant leadership principles and connect them to effective flight instructing and how to best implement that into student training.

4. Complete an assessment quiz that engages instructors in the material and evaluates comprehension of the lesson content. 

Human Factors Definition: 

Definition: Human factors is "a multidisciplinary field encompassing the behavioral and social sciences, engineering, and physiology, to consider the variables that influence individual and crew performance for the purpose of optimizing human performance and reducing errors" (Pilots Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge, p. G-15, 2024). For flight instructing specifically, human factors are critical to understand to reduce errors in students. Understanding human factors is critical and necessary in order to properly prepare students. From the effect of fatigue to flight sicknesses and risks, human factors is a critical basis in creating safe pilots. 

Core Principles: 

1. Aeromedical Issues 

Aeromedical Issues are medical factors that can happen in flight that include hypoxia, motion sickness, carbon monoxide poisoning, dissolved nitrogen in the bloodstream due to scuba diving, also commonly known as the bends (Pilots Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge, 2024). 

Why are they essential to discuss with students?

1. To be able to notice when students exhibit certain aeromedical risks.

2. Teach them effectively so that they can understand and be able to identify them in passengers and themselves. 

What is Hypoxia? Hypoxia is where there is an insufficient supply of oxygen to the body which can cause multiple different symptoms and is hazardous to pilots. 

Hypoxia Types: (Pilots Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge, 2024). 

1. Histotoxic Hypoxia: Cells not being able to use oxygen 

      Example: Caused by certain drugs and alcohol 

2. Hypemic Hypoxia: Not enough oxygen in the blood to go to the cells 

     Example: Can occur after donating blood 

3. Hypoxic Hypoxia: When there is not enough oxygen due to altitude gain 

     Example: Altitude gain (flying at higher levels with no oxygen) 

4. Stagnant Hypoxia: No blood circulation 

     Example: Pulling excessive G's 

2. Aeronautical Decision Making 

What is ADM?: "ADM is a systematic approach to risk assessment and stress management" (Pilots Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge, p. 2-2, 2023). 

Why is it important to discuss and teach aeronautical decision-making with students? 

1. To teach them risk management, proper decision-making techniques, and overall increase the safety of flight.

2. Create pilots who do not just regurgitate information but can make complex decisions and recognize signs and risks. 

3. To meet FAA standards and ACS guidelines when it comes to FAA check rides.   

Definitions:

What is Risk? Risk is "the composite of predicted severity and likelihood of the potential effect of a hazard" (Risk Management Handbook, p. 3-1, 2022). 

What is a Hazard? "a condition that could foreseeably cause or contribute to an aircraft accident" (Risk Management Handbook, p. 3-1, 2022). 

Why is understanding risk important?

• Risks are the factors that cause incidents or accidents

• By understanding different types of risks allows for preventative measures and risk management 

Different Type of Risk:

Hazardous Attitudes: 

One area of risk when it comes to flying is hazardous attitudes. Hazardous attitudes are ways that we as pilots react to situations and can impair safety and decision making. By identifying common attitudes, and learning the antitodes, students and instructors can become safer pilots. By understanding each different type, and which ones commonly affect students and even yourself, we can create a safer enviornment and help mitigate risks.

1. Anti-Authority (Risk Management Handbook, 2022).

• Doesn't listen to authority, "Don't tell me" 

• Antidote: Follow the rules and listen to authority 

2. Impulsivity

• Does things quickly without thinking 

• Antidote: Think before acting 

3. Invulnerability 

• Doesn't think anything will happen to them

• Antidote: It could happen to me 

4. Macho 

• Overconfident, they can do anything 

• Antidote: Taking chances is foolish 

5. Resignation 

• Don't think they can help the situation and they just give up 

• Antidote: I can make a difference 

*Training Recommendation*

1. Discuss with your student the different types of hazardous attitudes

2. Have them choose one hazardous attitude that they see themselves doing

3. Discuss the antidote with them and solutions for identifying and mitigating that specific hazardous attitude 

Risk Management 

Risk Assessments: One of the best way to mitigate risk and figure out if you are safe to fly before a flight is through a risk assessment. There are many different types of risk assessments, from acronyms to paper risk assessments, each hold critical value in determining safety of flight and risk management.

1. PAVE Model: 

   1. Pilot: How is the pilot feeling (sick, have they eaten), how comfortable do they feel with the plane (avionics, single or multi engine)?

   2. Aircraft: Is there anything broken on the aircraft? How comfortable are you in that aircraft type? 

   3. Environment: How is the weather? Is this in your personal minimums? 

   4. External factors/pressures: Is there something going on non flight related that is causing you stress? What is happening behind the scenes. 

       In a study conducted by Sun et al. (2023), they discussed the PAVE model, and added to the basic framework to create the HHM-PAVE model. They noticed an important need for a risk assessment for students specifically in flight training as these models help with safety and risk management. Their HHM-PAVE model used statistical data, and created different variables attached to the original PAVE model. This is a more detailed and well thought out structure that instructors should utilize with students. 

2. IMSAFE Checklist 

• Illness: Do you feel sick? 

• Medication: What medication are you on if any? Is this on the approved list to fly? 

• Stress: How are you feeling? Is there any factors that are causing stress? 

• Alcohol: Have you had any alcohol in the past 8 hours? Is your BAC .08 or greater? If so, do not fly.

• Fatigue: How much sleep did you get last night? Are you feeling tired?

• External Factors/Eating: Did you eat breakfast, lunch, or dinner? How are you feeling in general? 

Risk Assesment Matrix:

Another useful tool for identifying and teaching risks to students is the risk assesment matrix (Aviation Instructor Handbook, 2020). This matrix is how you analyze the risk, going one step further then just identifying a risk. Students should first identify risk using the traditional checklists above, then identifying risk using the matrix below. This is also very useful in analyzing accidents in order to teach risk analysis and management. 

*Training Recommendation*

1. First choose an aircraft accident with your student or on your own. Find an NTSB report online about it.

2. Read through the chosen NTSB report, and analyze the factors at play using the PAVE checklist.

3.  Use the risk assessment matrix to determine the likelihood and severity of the risks. 

4. Discuss the lessons learned from the accident, and how the risk could have been mitigated.

3. Defense Mechanisms 

What are defense mechanisms? Defense mechanisms are biological or psychological responses that humans utilize to protect themselves from unpleasant or harmful things. "Defense mechanisms soften feelings of failure, alleviate feelings of guilt, help an individual cope with reality, and protect one’s self-image" (Aviation Instructor Handbook, p.2-9, 2020). 

Why is it important to discuss and teach defense mechanisms with students? 

1. To help notice patterns in students and help them learn tools to manage their responses.

2. To aid in safety and general awareness.

3. Help them become more self aware of themselves and others. 

Denial- refusing to accept what is happening or going to happen (Aviation Instructor Handbook, p. 2-9, 2020). 

Ex: A student ignoring the fact that their steep turns are out of tolerances, choosing to believe they are within standard.

Repression- a person refuses to bring up, or pushes down unpleasent thoughts or ideas

Ex: A student is afraid of doing stalls but does not bring it up or say anything.

Fantasy- Using daydreams to avoid reality 

Ex: A student believes they are ready for a check ride without doing any of the studying. 

Compensation- Shifting focus from weakness to strength even if it is a completely different thing

Ex: A student says their lazy eights are great during the debrief when you were discussing their poor performance on steep spirals.

Projection- putting the blame on someone else

Ex: A student blames the stage check instructor for their own poor performance on a stage check.

Reaction Formation- Makes a fake belief which is the opposite of how they actually feel

Ex: A student who is afraid of their upcoming checkride tells you how excited they are for it instead of how they really feel.

Displacement- Moving a feeling (anger, sadness, etc) onto a less threatening substitute. 

Ex: A student is practicing landings and gets angry at you that they can not get the flare correct. 

Rationalization- Justifying choices or actions that are not good choices or actions

Ex: A student is doing a preflight and notices a small nick in the prop, and tells you they would fly because it's small and they know the propeller won't fly off.  

*Training Recommendation* 

1. Teach your student the different types of defense mechanisms.

2. Have your student identify what defense mechanism they have a risk of utilizing.

3. Go over ways to mitigate the defense mechanism with practical hands on training tools (point them out in flight, create more time on the ground to discuss when things go wrong, and put them in controlled situations where they might regress to their defense mechanism). 

Biblical Perspective:

 Servant Leadership: "Servant leadership can be defined as a multidimensional leadership theory that starts with a desire to serve, followed by an intent to lead and develop others, to ultimately achieve a higher purpose objective to the benefit of individuals, organizations, and societies" (Coetzer et al., p. 1, 2017). 

In an article published by Doyle and Swisher (2023), they discussed the leadership applications that can be learned from the book of Nehemiah. They created a study where they analysed the book of Nehemiah to the common list of servant leader characteristics as founded by other researchers. Nehemiah was a cupbearer to the king, and was instrumental in rebuilding the wall in Israel. He was a great example of servant leadership, as he embodied all of these principles and truly let God lead him and was obedient.

Additional Characteristics (Doyle and Swisher, 2023):

• Role Model: Nehemiah modeled ethical decisions and helped in the process of rebuilding the wall doing all the tasks. 

• Risk-Taking: Nehemiah had to take good risks as he had to ask the king to leave and rebuild the wall of another country. 

• The common good: Nehemiah focused on the good of everyone, specifically with putting others over himself. 

• Shared leadership: Nehemiah let other people help him and did not do it all alone.

 "Then I said to them, “You see the trouble we are in, how Jerusalem lies in ruins with its gates burned. Come, let us build the wall of Jerusalem, that we may no longer suffer derision.” And I told them of the hand of my God that had been upon me for good, and also of the words that the king had spoken to me. And they said, “Let us rise up and build.” So they strengthened their hands for the good work" (English Standard Version, Nehemiah 2:17-18, 2011).

Importance of Servant Leadership in Flight Instructing: 

• You are an example to your student so be that role model. Show them what it means to be not only a good pilot, but someone that loves God and cares more for others then yourself.

• Aviation is full of risk, but knowing how to take good risks in order to be safe and also teach students is a valuable skill. 

• Lean on other instructors, you are not in this alone. Ask for help with a student if you need it.

• Be the instructor that your student looks up to, put in the work and give it your all.

• Pray continuously, asking God to lead you in flight instructing.

*Further Study*

Read a chapter of Nehemiah a day and make a list of all the leadership principles that are mentioned. At the end of Nehemiah, combine all the principles from each chapter and that will give you the full definition of what a servant leader truly is. Every single leadership principle is shown in the book of Nehemiah. 

Interactive Activity:

Conclusion: 

In flight instructing, understanding human factors is critical. From aeromedical factors to defense mechanisms, there are many different areas and ideas that fall under human factors. To enhance safety, and help aid in the next generation of pilots, we must not only understand different areas of human factors but also how to apply it to training and day to day operations. From the proper implementation of risk assessments before flights, to practical training on aeromedical factors, we must not only teach students these things but also utilize them ourselves. As servant leaders, we must set the example for our students, not only understanding what is happening with them, but being able to critically think through our own human factors too. 

In the next lesson, we will be applying the knowledge learned from lesson 1 and studying a private pilot student lesson gone wrong and how defense mechanisms play a role in safety and human factors. 

References: 

Aviation Instructor’s Handbook. (2020). United States Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, Airman Testing Standards Branch.

Coetzer, M. F., Bussin, M., & Geldenhuys, M. (2017). The functions of a servant leader. Administrative Sciences, 7(1), 5. 

Doyle, L., & Swisher, J. (2023). Contemporary Applications for Leading Accountably Following a Study of Nehemiah as a Servant Leader. Journal of Biblical Integration in Business, 26(1).

English Standard Version. (2011). Bible Gateway. https://www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Nehemiah%202%3A17-18&version=ESV

Flying After Diving. Divers Alert Network. (2020). https://dan.org/health-medicine/health-resources/diseases-conditions/flying-after-diving/

Hypoxia: Causes, Symptoms, Tests, Diagnosis & Treatment. Cleveland Clinic. (2025, August 25). https://my.clevelandclinic.org/health/diseases/23063-hypoxia

Pilot’s Handbook of Aeronautical Knowledge. (2024). United States Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, Airman Testing Standards Branch.

Risk Management Handbook. (2022). Aviation Supplies & Academics, Incorporated, United States Department of Transportation, Federal Aviation Administration, Airman Testing Standards Branch.

Sun, H., Yang, F., Zhang, P., & Zhao, Y. (2023). Flight training risk identification and assessment based on the HHM-RFRM Model.    Sustainability, 15(2), 1693.