Social structure

The historical context

LEARNING INTENTIONS

To analyse the social structure of Rome and the varying roles of its people.

Ancient Roman society was divided into distinct classes. Social class and privilege in Rome was primarily determined by birth, wealth and property, occupation, education, and legal status (citizenship and freedom). Society was also based around men: women were defined by the social status of their fathers or husbands. At the bottom of all of the classes were slaves and non-citizens.

Slavery in ancient Rome was an abusive and degrading institution. Cruelty was commonplace. Slaves in Rome might include prisoners of war, sailors captured and sold by pirates, or slaves bought outside Roman territory. In hard times, it was not uncommon for desperate Roman citizens to raise money by selling their children into slavery.

It is important to note that social mobility in ancient Rome was limited. Although individuals could rise through the social ranks through wealth accumulation or military achievements, significant upward mobility was uncommon.

This hierarchical Roman social structure provided stability and order within the society.

Main factors influencing social class

Patricians and Plebeians: When Rome established a republic in 509 B.C., two major classes developed: patricians and plebeians. Patricians were the privileged aristocratic class, consisting of noble families who held political power and enjoyed social prestige. The patricians controlled the government with a Senate, made up of 300 elected officials. The senate chose two consuls to administer the laws of Rome. Plebeians, on the other hand, were the common people, including farmers, artisans, and merchants. Plebeians had limited political influence and faced social and legal restrictions.

Legal Status: Roman citizenship played a role in determining social class. Full Roman citizens enjoyed certain rights and privileges, while non-citizens and freed slaves occupied lower social positions. However, over time, the rights and privileges of citizenship expanded, and more people gained access to Roman citizenship.

Wealth and Property: Wealth played a crucial role in determining social class in ancient Rome. The possession of land, properties, and assets signaled a higher status. The wealthiest class was the senatorial class, which consisted of the Roman Senate members and their families. They had significant influence and access to political power. The equestrian class, comprising wealthy businessmen and landowners, also held a privileged position.

Occupation: The type of occupation one engaged in influenced social status. Certain professions, such as senators, magistrates, and military officers, were considered prestigious and conferred higher social standing. Conversely, occupations involving manual labor or menial work were viewed as lower status. Slaves, who were considered property rather than members of society, occupied the lowest rung of the social hierarchy.

Education and Culture: Education and cultural refinement were additional factors that impacted social class. Higher levels of education, particularly in fields like rhetoric, philosophy, and literature, were associated with men of the elite classes. Education could open doors to political and social advancement, enhancing the social status of men.

Painting from Pompeii, now in the Museo Archeologico Nazionale (Naples), showing a banquet or family ceremony.

What aspects of Roman society can you see in this painting from Pompeii?

Social hierarchy

Patricians - the upper class

The upper classes in ancient Rome were comprised of the elite members of society who held significant wealth and social prestige. The upper classes also held significant political power and influence in ancient Rome. They occupied key positions in the government, served as magistrates, and had access to the highest levels of decision-making. They formed powerful networks and alliances, ensuring their interests were protected and their voices heard in matters of governance.

It's important to note that the upper classes were a relatively small segment of Roman society, and their privileges and status were often inherited through generations. Their wealth, power, and social standing set them apart from the majority of the population, contributing to the stark social divisions in ancient Rome.

Upper classes in ancient Rome:

Patricians: The patricians were the highest aristocratic class in ancient Rome. They were the descendants of the original noble families who held political power and occupied important positions in the government. Patricians had access to vast estates, substantial wealth, and held influential positions in the Roman Senate and other high-ranking offices. They were highly respected and played a dominant role in shaping Roman politics and society. Within this upper class there were two groups - senatores and equites.

Senatorial Class: The senatorial class consisted of individuals who held membership in the Roman Senate. All men who served in the senate and by extension their families belonged to this class. Senators were selected from the wealthy elite, usually through birth or appointment. Senators had to prove they owned property worth at least 1 million sesterces (about 10 million of today's dollars). This was important because there was no paid salary for senators and they were banned from conducting business and trade. Senators were responsible for making laws, advising the magistrates, and participating in political decision-making. The senate continued to exist in the Imperial period but they had no real political power. The emperor decided who would be a senator.

Equestrian Class: The equestrian class, also known as the knights, was the next tier of the upper classes. They were primarily composed of the families of wealthy businessmen, landowners, and military officers. Equites had to own property worth 400,000 sesterces and could engage in the business pursuits denied to the senators. Equestrians were influential and held positions of authority in various administrative and financial roles. They were involved in trade, commerce, and managed large estates. Many equestrians also served as cavalry officers in the Roman army. It was possible for an equites to move up to the senatorial class on election to the magistracy - this was not very common.

Plebeians - the common people

The only power that plebeians had in the government of the early Republic was with a popular assembly, which approved the choice of consuls. Plebeians could not hold public office or marry into a patrician family. During the time of the Republic to the time of the empire, plebeians, who fought in many ways to help Rome gain power, demanded more rights. The government slowly began to change to appeal to plebeians who out-numbered everyone else in the population.

Around 494 B.C., an Assembly of Centuries and an Assembly of Tribes replaced the popular assembly. The Assembly of Centuries represented the Roman Army and all the classes that were included in it and they elected the consuls.

The Assembly of Tribes was made up of ten elected plebeians and spoke for the plebeians’ interests, but had little influence on the government. In 445 B.C, plebeians won the right to marry patricians. The Assembly of Tribes gained the right to pass laws and veto any government action that threatened the rights of the plebeians.

By about 300 B.C., plebeians had earned the right to hold all major political and religious posts. In 366 B.C., they won the right to the consulship. When Rome took over the control of an empire, the discrimination between these classes became indistinct.

Patrons and Clients in Roman Society

The people of ancient Rome were divided into two classes: wealthy, aristocratic patricians and poorer commoners called plebeians. Patricians, or upper-class Romans, were patrons to plebian clients. The patrons provided many types of support to their clients who, in turn, rendered services and loyalty to their patrons.

The number of clients and sometimes the status of clients conferred prestige on the patron. The client owed his vote to the patron. The patron protected the client and his family, gave legal advice, and helped the clients financially or in other ways.

This system was, according to the historian Livy, created by Rome's (possibly mythical) founder, Romulus.

Rules of Patronage

Patronage was not just a matter of picking out an individual and giving him money to support himself. Instead, there were formal rules pertaining to patronage. While the rules did change over the years, the following examples provide an idea of how the system worked:

A patron could have a patron of his own; therefore, a client, could have his own clients, but when two high-status Romans had a relationship of mutual benefit, they were likely to choose the label amicus ("friend") to describe the relationship since amicus did not imply stratification.

Some clients were members of the plebeian class but had never been enslaved. Others were formerly enslaved people. While freeborn plebs could choose or change their patron, formerly enslaved people called liberti, or freedmen, automatically became clients of their former owners and were obligated to work for them in some capacity.

Each morning at dawn, clients were required to greet their patrons with a greeting called the salutatio. This greeting could also be accompanied by requests for help or favours. As a result, clients were sometimes called salutatores.

Clients were expected to support their patrons in all matters, personal and political. As a result, it was possible for a wealthier patron to count on the votes of his many clients. Meanwhile, however, patrons were expected to provide a range of goods and services including food (which was often traded for cash) and legal counsel.

There was also patronage in the arts where a patron provided the wherewithal to allow the artist to create in comfort. The work of art or book would be dedicated to the patron.

Outcomes of the Patronage System

The idea of client/patron relationships had significant implications for the later Roman Empire and even medieval society. As Rome expanded throughout the Republic and Empire, it took over smaller states which had its own customs and rules of law. Rather than attempting to remove the states' leaders and governments and replace them with Roman rulers, Rome created "client states." Leaders of these states were less powerful than Roman leaders and were required to turn to Rome as their patron state.

Freedpeople

Research tasks

Find out what the term 'familia' meant in ancient Roman society.

How did the practice of patronage assist Rome to become a successful empire?

Slaves

Life as a slave

All slaves and their families were the property of their owners, who could sell or rent them out at any time. Their lives were harsh. Slaves were often whipped, branded or cruelly mistreated. Their owners could also kill them for any reason, and would face no punishment.

Although Romans accepted slavery as the norm, some people – like the poet and philosopher, Seneca – argued that slaves should at least be treated fairly.

Essential labour

Slaves worked everywhere – in private households, in mines and factories, and on farms. They also worked for city governments on engineering projects such as roads, aqueducts and buildings. As a result, they merged easily into the population.

Identification

To avoid enslaved Romans fleeing captivity, there’s evidence that they were branded or tattooed as a sign of their status. Yet enslaved Romans weren’t expected to wear an identifiable form of clothing.

The Senate did once debate whether a specific item of clothing be designated to enslaved people in ancient Rome. The suggestion was overruled on the grounds that slaves might join forces and rebel if they could distinguish how many slaves were in Rome.

Manumission

Manumission was the ability of slaves to be freed.

Manumission refers to the legal release of enslaved people at a time when slavery is sanctioned by law, as opposed to emancipation, which follows abolition and releases all people formerly enslaved.

Roman owners freed their slaves in considerable numbers: some freed them outright, while others allowed them to buy their own freedom. The prospect of possible freedom through manumission encouraged most slaves to be obedient and hard working. Formal manumission was performed by a magistrate and gave freed men full Roman citizenship. The one exception was that they were not allowed to hold office. However, the law gave any children born to freedmen, after formal manumission, full rights of citizenship, including the right to hold office.

Informal manumission gave fewer rights. Slaves freed informally did not become citizens and any property or wealth they accumulated reverted to their former owners when they died.

Free at last?

Once freed, former slaves could work in the same jobs as plebeians – as craftsmen, midwives or traders. Some even became wealthy. However, Rome’s rigid society attached importance to social status and even successful freedmen usually found the stigma of slavery hard to overcome – the degradation lasted well beyond the slavery itself. Slaves bought outside Roman territory. In hard times, it was not uncommon for desperate Roman citizens to raise money by selling their children into slavery.

Task

In one paragraph, explain how social class was determined in ancient Rome and how people could move up the social hierarchy.

Women in the Republic

During the early republic, the women of Rome had few legal rights. A male was always responsible for the care and support of the family’s women. The question of women as heirs were irrelevant. Like all plebeians, even women patricians could not vote or hold public office. They were usually married off around the age of 14 to be housewives.

Women were expected to look after the houses and very few had any real independence.

Ancient Roman SocietyRome began as a small city on the banks of the Tiber River in Italy. The Latin tribes (also known as the Latini or Latians) inhabited the region c. 1000 BCE but the founding of the city is dated to...

Twelve Tables in Ancient Rome

The Twelve Tables, also known as the Law of the Twelve Tables, were a set of laws that formed the foundation of Roman law in Ancient Rome. They were written on twelve bronze tablets and displayed publicly in the Roman Forum around 450 BCE.

The purpose of the Twelve Tables was to establish a code of laws that would apply to all Roman citizens and provide a basis for legal proceedings and social order. The laws covered various aspects of Roman society, including civil, criminal, and procedural matters. Some of the key provisions included:

Family and Marriage: Regulations concerning marriage, dowries, divorce, and guardianship.

Property and Ownership: Laws regarding property rights, inheritance, and land ownership.

Debt and Contracts: Regulations related to borrowing, lending, debt repayment, and contractual obligations.

Legal Proceedings: Guidelines for legal actions, trials, and punishments for crimes, including provisions for witnesses and evidence.

Slavery: Rules governing the rights and treatment of slaves.

The Twelve Tables played a crucial role in shaping Roman society and legal practices, ensuring transparency, consistency, and equal treatment under the law. They were considered a significant milestone in Roman history and were continually referenced and developed in subsequent legal systems.

Table IV. Paternal Power

1. A notably deformed child shall be killed immediately.

2a. To a father ...shall be given over a son the power of life and death.

2b. If a father thrice surrenders a son for sale the son shall be free from the father.

4. A child born within ten months of the father's death shall enter into the inheritance ...

Table V. Inheritance and Guardianship

1. ...Women, even though they are of full age, because of their levity of mind shall be under guardianship ... except vestal virgins, who Â… shall be free from guardianship ...

Table VIII. Torts or Delicts

1b. ... If anyone sings or composes an incantation that can cause dishonor or disgrace to another ... he shall suffer a capital penalty.

2. If anyone has broken another's limb there shall be retaliation in kind unless he compounds for compensation with him.

Table XI. Supplementary Laws

1. ... There shall not be intermarriage between plebeians and patricians ...

PEEL PARAGRAPH

Explain the significance of ancestral lineage and the concept of paterfamilias in Roman society.

Quality of life

The quality of life in the Roman Empire depended on a person's role in society.

During the Pax Romana (Latin for "Roman peace"), the Empire went through 206 years of relative peace. The wealthy built huge, well-decorated houses and usually had servants or slaves to tend to their every need.

The average citizen did not have this lifestyle but could still live fairly well in modest housing.

However, the largest class of people were poor and lived in what can only be described as poverty.

Families in Ancient Rome

In Roman family life, the oldest male, known as the patriarch or paterfamilias, held considerable power over the rest of the family. The family system in Rome was patriarchal, meaning that men held total power and that power could only be passed between men. The patriarch made all of the major decisions for the family. He had the power to leave his wife, known as the materfamilias, or even kill her if she cheated on him.

The patriarch even had the right to kill his own children. He could decide if a newborn baby should live and be raised by the family. The patriarch might choose to have the baby killed if he felt he had too many children, or even just too many girls.

The wife of the patriarch was expected to manage the household and to remain loyal and obedient to her husband. Women could not be politicians, but they gained more rights in later years of the empire. One of these was the right to own property.

Life as a member of the Roman upper class

Wealth and Luxury: The upper classes in ancient Rome displayed their wealth through luxurious lifestyles and extravagant displays of opulence. They owned large estates, country villas, and lavish townhouses. They possessed valuable assets such as fine art, jewellery, and exquisite furnishings. Upper-class Romans enjoyed sumptuous banquets, elaborate clothing, and attended exclusive social events.

Education and Culture: The upper classes placed great importance on education and cultural refinement. They pursued higher education in fields like philosophy, rhetoric, and literature. Upper-class Romans patronized and supported renowned writers, poets, and artists of the time. They were patrons of the arts and participated in intellectual and cultural activities.

Social Networks and Connections: The upper classes in ancient Rome maintained close ties and social connections with fellow elites. They formed exclusive social circles and engaged in activities that fostered relationships, such as attending public games, participating in religious ceremonies, and hosting lavish social gatherings.

A toga of few colours

Although the toga is the item of clothing most people connect with Roman culture, not all Romans could wear it. Only citizens were allowed to wear this sort of robe. As togas were a sign of social class, citizens wore them with pride, even though they were not very comfortable.

The toga consisted of a very large 18 feet by 6 feet piece of wool cloth that was carefully wrapped around the body. A well-wrapped toga did not require any buttons or pins.

The boundaries between the different classes were strict and legally enforced: members of different classes even dressed differently. Only the emperor was allowed to wear a purple toga, while senators could wear a white toga with the latus clavus, a broad purple stripe along the edge. Equestrian togas had a narrow purple stripe (clavus augustus).

The usual item of clothing for unmarried women was a tunic. Depending on the design of the garment, it was called either a peplos or chiton. Married women wore a toga-like garment called a stola.

An illustration of people in ancient Roman society dressed in different clothing indicating their social status.

Bullas

Roman children wore pendants called bullas, from the Latin word for "bubble," around their necks. The wealthy wore bullas made of gold, while a typical plebeian bulla was leather.

Which sentence BEST supports the idea that Romans were highly concerned with signs of social status?

A - However, the largest class of people were poor and lived in what can only be described as poverty.

B - In Roman family life, the oldest male, known as the patriarch, held considerable power over the rest of the family.

C - The average citizen wore a white toga, but a person in a position of importance wore a toga with a purple stripe.

Foods for rich and poor Romans

Painting of a feast in ancient Rome by Thomas Couture, 1847.

The rich liked to explore new flavours and try the strangest food they could find. They ate jellyfish, peacock, ostrich and fungus, to name just a few of their favourites. The wealthy held huge banquets that lasted all day.

Meanwhile, the diet of the poor relied on bread, vegetables such as cabbage, and porridge. The poor met their protein needs by eating some cheese and meat, which was usually pork.

Quiz on the Social Structure in Ancient Rome

What was the highest social class in Ancient Rome?

a) Patricians

b) Plebeians

c) Slaves

d) Freedmen

Which social class in Ancient Rome consisted of commoners, including farmers, craftsmen, and merchants?

a) Patricians

b) Plebeians

c) Senators

d) Equestrians

Who were the members of the senatorial class in Ancient Rome?

a) Wealthy landowners

b) Military generals

c) Freedmen

d) Slaves

What was the social status of slaves in Ancient Rome?

a) They were considered citizens with limited rights.

b) They were owned as property by their masters.

c) They had the opportunity to become senators.

d) They were exempt from paying taxes.

Which group of people in Ancient Rome were considered to be of low social standing and had limited political rights?

a) Patricians

b) Plebeians

c) Senators

d) Emperors

What was the primary factor that determined a person's social class in Ancient Rome?

a) Wealth

b) Birth right

c) Occupation

d) Education

What was the significance of the Twelve Tables in Ancient Rome?

a) They were the laws that defined the rights and responsibilities of Roman citizens.

b) They were the codes of conduct for Roman soldiers.

c) They were the guidelines for social etiquette in Ancient Rome.

d) They were the religious texts followed by the Roman priesthood.

Who had the power to make and enforce laws in Ancient Rome?

a) The Emperor

b) The Senate

c) The Plebeians

d) The Patricians

TRUE OR FALSE

True or False: Ancient Roman society was highly stratified, with a clear distinction between the upper class and lower class.

True or False: Slavery was an integral part of ancient Roman society, with slaves being employed in various roles.

True or False: Women in ancient Roman society enjoyed a high degree of social and legal freedom, including the ability to own property.

True or False: The Roman Empire reached its greatest territorial extent during the reign of Emperor Julius Caesar.

True or False: The Roman Republic was established in 509 BCE, marking the end of the Roman Kingdom.

True or False: The Colosseum in Rome was primarily used for gladiatorial combat and other public spectacles.

True or False: Christianity was initially persecuted in ancient Rome, but later became the official state religion under Emperor Constantine.

True or False: Ancient Romans made significant contributions to architecture, with innovations such as the arch and dome.

True or False: Most ancient Romans lived in large, luxurious villas with extensive gardens.

True or False: The Roman Empire had a well-developed system of public welfare, providing free healthcare and education to all its citizens.

True or False: Some Ancient Romans believed in the concept of "bread and circuses," distracting citizens from politics by providing free food and entertainment.

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