Civix Essays

For six years I have taught a college-level civics course for freshmen/sophomore and dual enrollment high school students, and continue to teach an introduction to American government course to undergraduate and dual enrollment students. My pedagogical perspective for these courses is to provide a citizen-centric approach, at least in various parts, that enable students to better understand their role in a democracy. While it is important to understand history, understand government institutions, processes, and functions, it is equally important to reinforce to students how individuals can participate and in what ways. 

Over the past year I have revamped my American government course to include several experiential-based assessments, including a simulation I’ve dubbed LARPing (Live Action Role Playing) Legislators and Lobbyists. Thanks to several of my wonderful colleagues in Austin Peay State University’s Nursing Program (Professors Meyer and Wilk), the simulation pairs nursing and political science students to role play lobbyists and legislators, respectively, on an actual healthcare bill in the Tennessee legislature. Second, I have students write to all their members of Congress on a policy issue they have researched and care about, and their letter must include an ask or call to action. Lastly, I ask students to file a Freedom of Information Act (FOIA) request for information of their choice.

All three assignments involve having students take what they learn and apply to a real-world experience, thus better connecting them either directly to government or providing them a perspective they might not have been previously exposed to. This paper will focus on the last assignment, filing a FOIA request.

Why use a FOIA request as an assignment? 

The answer begins with my own experience. Prior to graduate school I worked for an advocacy organization focused on the particular policy area of federal small business procurement programs run through the Small Business Administration. In that role, I filed hundreds of FOIA requests for various documents and reports that were all technically public information, but not publicly available. What that meant is that one could not find it online, at an office, library, government building or anywhere. The only way to get the information was to file a FOIA request and go through the process. In my experience numerous requests were denied, appealed, and then the appeal was denied. The organization I worked for would often file lawsuits to immediately have the agency reverse itself and provide us with the information requested once the suit was filed.

History of FOIA

President Lyndon B. Johnson reluctantly signed the Freedom of Information Act on July 4, 1966. While LBJ attempted to stop Congress from passing the law, rather than veto the bill, he chose to keep the support of his congressional majorities for Great Society initiatives. As a law, FOIA grants anyone the right to request information from any executive branch department or agency, except for the Executive Office of the President, or if the information falls into one of the nine exemptions that include classified information, proprietary information, and personal information. To get FOIA passed in Congress, Representative John Moss (D-CA), the lead proponent, made a deal with the Justice Department to include the nine exemptions provided they would not remove the legal mechanism that allows any requestor to file a lawsuit if their appeal is denied. In an attempt to gain LBJ’s support, Moss allowed the Justice Department to help write the committee report and the instructions to agencies on implementation. The law does not actually provide specific directives on how each agency should handle requests, so each agency has a slightly different process. 

Over the years the law has been amended numerous times, most recently in 2016. Efforts have been made to provide a more streamlined process across the executive branch. These efforts have led to FOIA.gov which serves as a central location for anyone to easily learn about FOIA and file requests through an online portal.

FOIA was the first law of its kind at a national level, even though several states had already implemented open records laws. During the Cold War when there were concerns over access to information, Congress was determined to ensure that an informed citizenry would remain, providing them a process to get information from government agencies. Lessons learned from McCarthyism and legitimate concerns over vital information being made public informed the debates around the law, and continue to this day. Members of Congress, including Moss, knew the realities but fought to ensure the public had some measure of oversight that might serve as a powerful check on power. In this regard, the press industry and journalists were proponents of FOIA at the beginning and continue to use it today to help inform the public. But FOIA is not just for the press. FOIA is for everyone and can be a powerful tool for anyone.

The Assignment

Through the assignment, we develop an understanding of the history of how and why this law came to be, but even more importantly, how this tool works, and what it can be used for. I provide students multiple links, beginning with FOIA.gov and links to the National Security Archive at The George Washington University, which has numerous resources including a legislative history of FOIA and all of its amendments, a reading room of public documents received through FOIA, and blogs on how to write FOIA requests and handle government agencies. I also provide students with a sample FOIA letter that I used for an actual request (as of this this writing, that request is turning three years old with still no information provided). 

The most difficult part of the assignment is for students to decide what information to ask. The instructions tell them to find a topic or think through information on a program, an incident, or an issue. They are then instructed to spend time searching online to see what information already is publicly available. Next, students determine what agency controls the information they are seeking.  While FOIA.gov can help direct them to the proper agency, individuals have to know what specific information they want first. Figuring out the information wanted or needed is where students struggle the most. Some know exactly what they want, some eventually figure it out. For the rest I give an easy option to FOIA their file with the FBI. The FBI has an easy FOIA request form where anyone can request their own FBI file, provided the Bureau has a file on you. If they do, they will send the information, and if not, they respond that they do not. Bonus: the FBI is usually very quick in responding to these requests. Invariably, there is always a group of students who take this option, and thus far, not one of them has ever had an FBI file, which I think is generally a good thing.

Once students know what information they want, and what agency has that information, they must file a request. They can do this through FOIA.gov, although a few agencies still prefer direct email, hard copy letters or to use their own online portal. For the assignment, students do not need to follow up with the agency on their request. However, I do ask students to let me know if they get the information requested, which some do. Due to time constraints and the fact that some requests could take years or decades, the assignment is just to file a request.

Students submit three things for the assignment. First is a copy of their request letter. This can be a screenshot from the FOIA.gov portal or a word document of their request. For grading purposes, it does not matter what information they are requesting. However, the text of the request letter provides evidence the student spent time researching a topic and understands the process of how to file a request. Second, students submit a screenshot or email confirmation that the request was submitted and received. If they use FOIA.gov, once their request form is submitted an email confirmation is automatically generated and sent to the student, so they can use this email as evidence of submitting a request. Third, students provide a one-to-two-page reflection paper discussing what they learned from going through the process of filing a request. Here, I ask the students to discuss the process but also what stood out for them in learning the process and why.

What I’ve Learned

The reflection papers have told me two important things. First, most students struggle to know what information to request as that portion of the assignment can be quite overwhelming and daunting. Offering them various supports or ideas on where to begin can be helpful. The importance of the assignment is not in what information is being requested but in learning the process and why citizen oversight matters. Going through the process of filing a request is the goal, which helps students make connections to better understand government functionality and their own role in how to get information. This is citizen oversight and a necessary tool for democratic health. Student comprehension of how they can get information from government agencies and departments is what matters.

Second, the majority of students are amazed to learn this process. None of them have ever done it before. Thus far In teaching this assignment, I have encountered only one student who had previously filed a FOIA request. Most students have never heard of FOIA, nor ever considered filing a request. A value exists for students in just exposing them to the process. Students also learn how easy the process is. This is an important lesson. Common responses in the reflection papers are that students did not realize how easy it is to file a request, often believing it would take a lot of time or require a massive amount of paperwork. Students are often surprised that filing a request merely involves filling out an online form that takes an average of five to ten minutes to complete. Going through the process is another learning experience that helps connect students directly to government. Students commonly respond that they better understand why having access to government information is important. Last, students comment that they plan to use FOIA in the future now that they know how to do it. 

Conclusions

The assignment demystifies FOIA and the process and helps students learn a powerful tool that they can use again. While some students have heard of the Freedom of Information Act prior to the assignment, like with most things government related, their perception of it does not mirror reality. As with voting or other civic-based , research shows that if people get involved at a younger age, they will consistently be active throughout their lives. Experiential learning assignments like this are an easy and effective way to expose students to civics-based learning experiences that connect to the real world.

Introduction courses are the perfect platform from which to rethink civics lessons and experiential learning. Understanding government matters more and more as democratic health continues to wane.  We can help students understand process and function, and to directly link the academic to their world. The best part is that these types of assessments do not have to be time consuming or difficult to teach, yet the experience can have a lasting impression on the students. At the end of the semester, they may not remember specific sections of the Constitution or what Madison argued in Federalist No. 10, but they will remember how to file a FOIA request and what to do if they want government information. 

If you are interested in seeing more materials or have questions about how you could do an assignment like this, I am happy to provide any materials I have or talk with you. Please reach out to me directly at baronkm@apsu.edu. 

Elections are one of the primary means by which many individuals connect with politicians. As election outcomes have become increasingly contested, as elites spread unsubstantiated claims of voter fraud, and as public trust in election outcomes are increasingly filtered through a partisan lens, election administration plays a central role in ensuring legitimacy of the electoral process and outcomes. Subverting faith and trust in elections undermine the foundations of democracy. Research has shown that technical improvements to electoral administration can improve voter perceptions of elections being fair, but that there are limits to what election administration reforms alone can achieve (Bowler et. al 2015). As we prepare for the 2022 Midterm Elections and increasingly contested elections and election outcomes, one approach to addressing perceptions of legitimacy and trust is to incorporate election administration in civic learning curriculum and campus-wide initiatives. Furthermore, engaging young people in election administration can serve as an opportunity for developing civic agency and promoting increased informed participation in elections.

Election Officers play a critical but often overlooked role in a representative democracy, serving on the front lines of election administration. The need for election officers increased in 2020 as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic and the higher risks the coronavirus poses to older adults. In the 2018 general election, around six-in-ten U.S. poll workers (58%) were ages 61 and older, including roughly a quarter (27%) who were over 70 (Pew Research Center). As a result, young people, who are traditionally not as engaged in elections as their counterparts in older age demographics, had the opportunity to learn more about elections, election administration, and representative democracy, while contributing to the broader public good in their communities. As James Madison University History Major and first-time poll worker Charles Conner, one of JMU Civic’s undergraduate Campus Vote Project Democracy Fellows told Time Magazine: “It’s a job that needs to be done. It’s good work, it helps your community, and you’re rewarded for your efforts.”

What We Did

Our experience recruiting and training young people to serve as Election Officers in the 2020, and 2021 Elections (through entirely virtual means during a pandemic) contributed to fostering mutually-beneficial and reciprocal community relationships, especially with local Directors of Elections and Electoral Boards. We recruited students at James Madison University (JMU) to serve as poll workers through several means. In the 2020 Elections, some 120 JMU students applied to be Election Officers in Virginia. 

First, our Campus Vote Project undergraduate Democracy Fellows recruited and trained peers through class visits and social media. As the need for Election Officers became clear early in the pandemic, JMU Civic undergraduate Democracy Fellows began a social media campaign and served as poll workers themselves. 

By Fall, then-Virginia Governor Ralph S. Northam publicly urged Virginians to apply to be poll workers.  JMU Civic undergraduate Democracy Fellows passed a resolution in the Student Government Association urging faculty to give students who work as Election Officers “amnesty” from class attendance to “increase the number of students who are willing to apply as Election Officers which will help combat the negative effects of a nationwide shortfall in Election Officers.” 

In addition to campus-wide recruitment efforts, we included serving as an Election Officer as an option in our interdisciplinary Hacking4Democracy course that was paired with political science scholarship, training and reflection. Recognizing varying vulnerability to COVID-19, students were also given other alternatives for participating in voter education and engagement efforts for course credit. In addition, students in our Elections 2020 class interviewed Chris Piper, then-Commissioner of the Virginia Department of Elections, for JMU Civic’s Democracy Matters podcast about how the pandemic affected election administration this year; historic levels of absentee and early voting; partnering with federal agencies and other states to combat foreign interference; and how litigation might affect when we know election results. 

What We Learned 

Student reflections from the experience show that educating, recruiting and training young people to serve as Election Officers can be a means for civic learning and developing civic agency, but also an opportunity to educate and build trust in election administration. 

One student reflected on the experience, “Being involved with Election Day in 2020 has been one of my favorite educational experiences at JMU. I really enjoyed being able to serve my community and learn more about civic engagement. I also saw the dedication and care that goes into making elections run securely and smoothly.”

“My favorite parts of this class were learning about the election but then going out and participating in hands-on work in the community,” another student reflected. “I stuffed absentee ballots twice and got to see the precision and care Mark Finks [Director of Elections] took in making sure people in Harrisonburg had safe access to voting. I worked as an Election officer which was very cool. It was a very long day but I got to witness democracy happening.” 

Another student reflected on what she learned about what others know and do NOT know about election processes: “My biggest takeaways from this class are that young people’s voices do matter and can make a difference and people need to be better educated on early mail-in ballots and absentee ballots…Working as an Election Officer made me see that absentee and mail-in ballots were not explained well enough to people and they were not able to complete or turn them in properly. I also learned that not enough people know where they are registered to vote and where their correct polling location is located.” 

Virginia has elections every year (thanks to James Madison). For state elections in Fall 2021, JMU Civic led efforts to recruit students as poll workers. There was not as much enthusiasm for the state-wide election. We also did not have the opportunity to teach our Hacking4Democracy class in Fall 2021, so there wasn’t a course incentive to participate. We also faced challenges gaining student attention to apply ahead of training deadlines. As a result, we had fewer students who served as Election Officers. However, those who did reflected on their learning: 

“During my time as an election officer for the 2021 Gubernatorial Elections in the Harrisonburg Rockingham county area, I not only learned the workings of a voting precinct, but also that there is a lot of hard work not only in developing election laws and regulations, but also in ensuring the voting process on election day is clear and secure for voters. Election officers, in volunteering their time and energy, work to ensure that this process goes smoothly, and I found myself working with a team of dedicated, civic-minded individuals to make that happen.”

“I went into my experience as an election officer not necessarily knowing what to expect, but I came out of that voting precinct after a seventeen-hour shift with a more firmly cemented faith in the security of the electoral process. After building an appreciation for those who work to keep our elections free and fair, I feel a more personal responsibility to protect and uphold these elections.”

Lessons for 2022 and Beyond

First and foremost, it’s important to develop a relationship with the local Director of Elections and the Electoral Board. JMU Civic regularly represents James Madison University at bi-monthly Electoral Board meetings and shares information and needs with the broader university community. Before unleashing students, we find out what needs the community has and then recruit and educate students to work alongside our community partners. 

Clearly students will be more aware and motivated in presidential election years. However, incentives for serving as Election Officers, either as community service credits or as an assignment can increase participation. Pairing scholarship, training and service with an opportunity for reflection can lead to deep learning, that is the complex and adaptive application of civic knowledge, skills and dispositions/values. 

Recruitment for Fall elections should occur in Spring as it can be difficult to garner enough attention from students in the Fall before deadlines to apply. So, now is the time to be encouraging students to apply to serve as Election Officers for the 2022 midterm elections. If there is not a need for poll workers, students can still attend Electoral Board meetings and volunteer to help with early, absentee and mail-in voting. 

References: 

Barton Gellman, “Trump’s Next Coup Has Already Begun,” The Atlantic, https://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2022/01/january-6-insurrection-trump-coup-2024-election/620843/ 

Brent Solomon, “Gov. Northam asks Virginians to consider applying to work the polls.” https://www.nbc12.com/2020/09/01/gov-northam-asks-virginians-consider-applying-work-polls/

Michael Barthel and Galen Stocking, “Older people account for large shares of poll workers and voters in U.S. general elections,” Pew Research Center, https://www.pewresearch.org/fact-tank/2020/04/06/older-people-account-for-large-shares-of-poll-workers-and-voters-in-u-s-general-elections/ 

Raisa Bruner, “Young People are creating a new generation of enthusiastic poll workers,” Time, https://time.com/5902584/first-time-poll-workers/ 

“Republicans and democrats move further apart in views of voting access,” Pew Research Center, https://www.pewresearch.org/politics/2021/04/22/republicans-and-democrats-move-further-apart-in-views-of-voting-access/ 

Shaun Bowler, Thomas Brunell, Todd Donovan, Paul Gronke, “Election administration and perceptions of fair elections,” Electoral Studies, Volume 38, 2015, Pages 1-9, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.electstud.2015.01.004. 

“Trust in America: Do Americans trust their elections?” Pew Research Center, https://www.pewresearch.org/2022/01/05/trust-in-america-do-americans-trust-their-elections/ 

APSA’s Civic Engagement Section promotes both the teaching and practice of civic engagement. In this essay, we argue that requiring students to engage with local communities is an ideal way to build civic knowledge and skills while inspiring future engagement.

Michael Smith and the Hon. Bob Graham argue that teaching “citizenship” differs from teaching “civics,” and advocate for a comprehensive shift in how we teach “students the rights, responsibilities and competencies of active citizenship,” (Smith & Graham, 2014, p. 703). They suggest that traditional political science curricula should be accompanied by an emphasis on the importance of “engagement in the ‘real world’” (p. 703). For most students, that real world is their local community. Graham and Hand’s book, America: The Owner’s Manual (2009), provides a model of “an active citizenship-based curriculum based on achieving change on a local issue that students chose” (as cited in Smith & Graham, 2014, p. 703). This bottom-up approach is premised on the notion that students learn most passionately about citizenship through issues in which government has an immediate impact on their lives. Just as athletes learn better on a playing field than a classroom, students learn about citizenship best by actively engaging with public policy that affect students’ own lives, in their own communities.

To help put this idea into practice, we conducted a review of the literature on civic engagement from the articles in PS: Political Science & Politics over the last decade and found several articles, along with Smith & Graham, that offer useful suggestions, insights, and best practices for ways to facilitate student engagement with local communities (Hurley, Isenbletter, & Bennion, 2021).

In “Civic Engagement in the Capstone: The ‘State of the Community’ Event” (2014), Charles C. Turner describes a senior capstone course that provides students with a “real world opportunity to serve as political consultants” to local municipalities. In their role as consultants to public agencies in a small city, students experience the intricacies of multi-staged processes from policy planning to citizen engagement. They sit in on committee work, observe municipal administration, and engage with city council members along the way.

Turner argues for the value of such a capstone project, as it can be “a turning point for political science students who must soon transition from the undergraduate world to citizens in the surrounding community” (p. 497). The course provides a template for “interacting with agencies, city officials and the public” while “emphasizing the importance of timeliness, teamwork, presentation skills, and professionalism” (p. 497) to provide experiences relevant to diverse disciplines. The final product, a “State of the City” report, provides a tangible, time-restricted goal for students. Students immerse themselves in their local municipalities through production of a SWOT Analysis Plan of Action and a Community Report presented as part of a State of the Community forum where they publicly present a project in collaboration with a community partner.

Students benefit from presenting themselves professionally and practicing communication skills in an authentic community engagement experience. Their engagement with their local community instills confidence while exposing them to a broad range of applicable public administration career tracks and real-life contacts relevant to their political science studies. Turner shares obstacles and challenges, many of which relate to the difficulties often encountered when authentically engaging with external institutions/individuals. Turner suggests such obstacles can be avoided when student efforts bring real benefits to the community. Over time, the willing collaboration of local partners -- necessary for sustained success -- will only happen if students bring real value. This requires a strong commitment from instructors and the preparation and screening of students.

Dealing with the uncertainties inherent in external engagement with local communities is a difficult challenge for instructors, but it is the very uncertainty of real-world dynamics that makes such involvement in the local community so valuable. Fortunately, there are ways to mitigate such risks. In “Stimulating City Councils: Increasing Student Awareness and Involvement” (2012), Sara R. Rinfret describes how to engage students with stimulating city councils by simulating them. “To captivate contemporary students [Rinfret argues] that a city council simulation is imperative,” (p. 513) and she outlines a detailed process for doing so. In requiring students to attend council meetings and write reflections in preparation for the simulation, Rinfret cleverly motivates civic engaged learning and encourages the occasional adrenaline rush that can accompany one’s experience in seeing the ‘sausage-making’ of democracy in its oft disheveled state. One student reflected that “I hated having to give up a Tuesday night to attend a city council meeting, but I loved it! One alderperson spit on another due to a disagreement about roundabouts.” Democracy in action, indeed.

Rinfret’s simulation model requires students represent all constituencies. They select roles, such as mayor, alderpersons, neighborhood advocates and business associations. With students representing such diverse constituencies, the class together experiences the breadth, depth and complexity of local politics. To research their roles, students visit neighborhood groups and business associations and meet with city leaders. Such direct engagement provides students with exhilarating opportunities to witness individual citizens actively engaged in their local communities on issues they feel passionate about. As one student noted in their reflection, “This simulation should be a requirement as one of our general education courses. We should all be aware of what is going on around us.”

The intimacy and accessibility of small cities can facilitate student involvement in their local communities. Both Turner and Rinfret pre-suppose student access to municipal leaders and agency staff. However, students in rural communities may not have easy access to such municipal institutions. Brian Anderson, in “High-Impact Political Science Internships in a ‘Low-Density’ Environment” (2014) recognizes the civic engagement needs of students not proximate to urban centers and that the opportunity for active engagement in politics is inordinately centered on high-density urban centers close to political power. In Washington, D.C., state capitals, and other centers of commerce and politics, a vast infrastructure accommodates interns and provides other opportunities for civic engagement and service learning. In such ‘capital city’ intern programs, a cohort of students from around the country are typically assigned prescribed functions that may be instructive, but are often circumscribed within narrow parameters. Students with resources may be drawn to high-profile experiences in metropolitan centers close to political power. But a dearth of such opportunities exists for rural students with fewer resources.

Though rural communities could benefit from low-cost human resources like interns, they may lack an administrative infrastructure to support robust intern programs. While circumstances may limit intern opportunities, Anderson argues that the informality of small-town governments can make intern experiences more enriching. In smaller communities, a capable intern may be deployed as-needed when situations arise, offering a wider range of direct experience with how local government functions. Anderson points out that “with fewer layers of hierarchy, small-city institutions directly expose students to decision-making processes and the impact of public policy” (p. 862).

Arguably, the value of experiential learning is enhanced when students bring direct benefits to their community. For students to realize the satisfaction of tangibly benefiting their community, their endeavors must necessarily be local. In “Experiential Learning in MPA programs: A Case for Complementarity between Internship and Service Learning Requirements,” John David Gerlack and Tyler P. Rangel (2016) argue that service learning, which implies greater engagement with local communities by prioritizing community benefits, should receive a greater emphasis as part of the experiential learning repertoire of MPA students. Service learning is distinguished from internships in that it stresses community outcomes rather than focusing more narrowly on student learning, and implies an essential tie to the local community through relationships developed between students, faculty, the academic program, and the university as a whole.

The authors review ways to incorporate service learning into MPA programs and argue for its value in complementing internships as part of a comprehensive experiential learning curriculum for MPA programs (p. 134-135). The necessarily local orientation of service-learning programs is attributed to the “mutually reinforcing relationship focused on the surrounding community” (p. 135). The mutable character of local, public organizations can make the administration of service learning programs demanding on instructors. Thus, institutional commitments to robust service-learning programs can facilitate MPA instructors using such avenues to incentivize local civic engagement. Because of the immediacy of local issues, service learning projects can provide students an opportunity to see the implementation of public administration concepts in action in a way that manifests more noticeably in one’s immediate community than may be experienced in a semester-long internship oriented to skill development in a professional setting. Gerlack and Rangel, like the other authors, advocate for active learning experiences within local communities that are meaningful to students’ due to their ability to directly witness the benefits their efforts bring to real communities.

As the long-standing aphorism states, all politics is local. Perhaps we can add a corollary posing that student political knowledge and participation is best cultivated when they engage in issues that most “closely parallel students’ own life experiences” (Smith & Graham, 2014, p. 703). The articles reviewed here provide helpful ideas and guidance for student engagement with local communities. They provide templates for numerous ways that civic engagement can be productively accomplished at the local level. Not only do the authors provide helpful examples that others might borrow, they make a compelling case that civic engagement strategies oriented to local communities may be the best way to teach citizenship. Anderson shows that the seeming dearth of internships in small towns and rural communities may conceal unique opportunities for highly enriching and diverse student experiences. Both Rinfret and Turner lay out methods for working with local governments that offer intimate involvement with ‘politics’ on the ground level that would be difficult to accomplish in larger governmental institutions. Meeting with an alderperson whom one plans to ‘play’ in a city simulation is about as close as one can get to politics on a human level. The heightened degree of accountability that results from working closely with members of the local community is one reason, according to Turner, that active learning in local communities is so valuable. Students gain more when more is expected of them, and local citizens expect more than simply providing a learning opportunity for students. They want results.

Anderson, B. (2014). High-Impact Political Science Internships in a “Low-Density Opportunity” Environment. PS: Political Science & Politics, 47(4), 862-866. doi:10.1017/S1049096514001188.

Gerlach, J., & Reinagel, T. (2016). Experiential Learning in MPA Programs: A Case for Complementarity between Internship and Service Learning Requirements. PS: Political Science & Politics, 49(1), 132-138. doi:10.1017/S1049096515001158.

Graham, B.T., & Hand, C. (2009). America, the Owner's Manual: You Can Fight City Hall—and Win. CQ Press.

Hurley, D., Isenbletter, K., & Bennion, E.A. (2021). Civic Engagement Scholarship: What We Can Learn from the Research [Conference presentation]. APSA 2021 Annual Meeting, Seattle, WA, United States.

Rinfret, S. (2012). Simulating City Councils: Increasing Student Awareness and Involvement. PS: Political Science & Politics, 45(3), 513-515. doi:10.1017/S104909651200039X.

Smith, M., & Graham, B. T. (2014). Teaching Active Citizenship: A Companion to the Traditional Political Science Curriculum. PS: Political Science & Politics, 47(3), 703-710. doi:10.1017/S1049096514000870.

Turner, C. (2014). Civic Engagement in the Capstone: The “State of the Community” Event. PS: Political Science & Politics, 47(2), 497-501. doi:10.1017/S1049096514000444.