Unit Five

Mental & Physical Health

College Board Expects Students To...

Explain how health psychology addresses issues of physical health and wellness as they apply to behavior and mental processes.
Explain how stress applies to behavior and mental processes.
Explain how reactions to stress apply to behavior and mental processes.
Explain how the ways that people cope with stress applies to behavior and mental processes.
Explain how positive psychology approaches the study of behavior and mental processes.
Explain how positive subjective experiences apply to behavior and mental processes.
Describe the approaches used to define behaviors and mental processes as psychological disorders.
Explain how psychological perspectives define psychological disorders.
Explain how interaction models define psychological disorders.
Describe the symptoms and possible causes of selected neurodevelopmental disorders.
Describe the symptoms and possible causes of selected schizophrenic spectrum disorders.
Describe the symptoms and possible causes of selected depressive disorders.
Describe the symptoms and possible causes of selected bipolar disorders.
Describe the symptoms and possible causes of selected anxiety disorders.
Describe the symptoms and possible causes of selected obsessive-compulsive disorders and related disorders.
Describe the symptoms and possible causes of selected dissociative disorders.
Describe the symptoms and possible causes of selected trauma and stressor-related disorders.
Describe the symptoms and possible causes of selected feeding and eating disorders.
Describe the symptoms and possible causes of selected personality disorders.
Describe research and trends in the treatment of psychological disorders.
Describe ethical principles in the treatment of psychological disorders.
Describe techniques used with psychological therapies.
Explain how group therapy is different from individual therapy.
Describe effective uses of hypnosis.
Describe interventions derived from the biological perspective.

Health & Happiness

Health Psychology

Health psychology is a subfield of psychology that provides psychology’s contribution to behavioral medicine. Psychoneuroimmunology is the study of how psychological, neural, and endocrine processes together affect the immune system and resulting health. From these, we have learned the following about stress:

Stress diverts energy from the immune system, inhibiting the activities of its B and T lymphocytes, macrophages, and NK cells.
B lymphocytes, which release antibodies that fight bacterial infections;
T lymphocytes, which attack cancer cells, viruses, and foreign substances;
Macrophage cells (“big eaters”), which identify, pursue, and ingest harmful invaders and worn-out cells; and
Natural killer cells (NK cells), which attack diseased cells (such as those infected by viruses or cancer).
Stress does not cause illnesses or diseases, but by altering our immune functioning it may make us more vulnerable to them and influence their progression.

Stress

Stress is the process of appraising and responding to a threatening or challenging event. Stress can take many forms, known as stressors:

Eustress: “good” stress, situations that are challenging but manageable and can lead to growth
- - - Significant Life Changes - moving, marriage, pregnancy
Distress: “bad” stress, situations that are difficult and have a negative impact
- - Adverse Childhood Experiences (ACEs): negative experiences that affect a child’s brain and health as they grow into adults
  - Catastrophes - unpredictable large-scale events, such as natural disasters
  - Significant Life Changes - divorce, death of a loved one
  - Daily Hassles - traffic, dead cell phone, no Wifi, strained budgets, deadlines

Although the human body copes well with temporary stress, prolonged stress can damage it. Severe childhood stress gets under the skin, leading to greater adult stress responses and disease risk. The brain’s production of new neurons also slows and some neural circuits degenerate. One study found shortened telomeres (DNA pieces at the ends of chromosomes) in those who suffered severe childhood stressors. Telomere shortening is a normal part of the aging process; when telomeres get too short, the cell can no longer divide and it ultimately dies. Severe stress seems to prematurely age people.

Facing stress, women may have a tend-and-befriend response (providing or gaining support from others), while men may withdraw socially, turn to alcohol, or become aggressive.

Coping with Stress

Problems are unavoidable. We need to learn to cope with the problems in our lives, alleviating the stress they cause with emotional, cognitive, or behavioral methods.

We address some stressors directly, with problem-focused coping. If our impatience leads to a family fight, we may go directly to that family member to work things out. We tend to use problem-focused strategies when we feel a sense of control over a situation and think we can change the circumstances, or at least change ourselves to deal with the circumstances more capably.

We turn to emotion-focused coping when we believe we cannot change a situation. If, despite our best efforts, we cannot get along with that family member, we may relieve stress by reaching out to friends for support and comfort. This can be adaptive, but sometimes our emotion-focused coping can harm our health, such as when we respond by eating comforting but fattening foods. Our feelings of personal control, our explanatory style, and our supportive connections all influence our ability to cope successfully.

Handling Stress

Hans Selye’s studies of animals’ reactions to various stressors, such as electric shock and surgery, helped make stress a major concept in both psychology and medicine. Selye proposed that the body’s adaptive response to stress is so general that, like a single burglar alarm, it sounds, no matter what intrudes. He named this response the general adaptation syndrome (GAS), and he saw it as a three-phase process. Let’s say you suffer a physical or an emotional trauma:

In Phase 1, you have an alarm reaction, as your sympathetic nervous system is suddenly activated. Your heart rate zooms. Blood is diverted to your skeletal muscles. You feel the faintness of shock. With your resources mobilized, you are now ready to fight back.
During Phase 2, resistance, your temperature, blood pressure, and respiration remain high. Your adrenal glands pump hormones into your bloodstream. You are fully engaged, summoning all your resources to meet the challenge. As time passes, with no relief from stress, your body’s reserves begin to dwindle.
You have reached Phase 3, exhaustion. With exhaustion, you become more vulnerable to illness or even, in extreme cases, collapse and death.

GROW through what you GO through

Resilience refers to an individual’s ability to bounce back or recover from adversity, stress, or trauma. It involves adapting positively to challenges and maintaining mental and emotional well-being even in difficult circumstances. Resilience can be developed through supportive relationships, coping strategies, and a sense of self-efficacy.

Gratitude is a positive emotional response that emerges from acknowledging and appreciating the good aspects of life. Practicing gratitude elevates happiness, fosters positive emotions, and serves as a buffer against anxiety and depression. It has also been known to lower blood pressure and strengthen the immune system.

Post-traumatic growth refers to the positive psychological changes that can occur as a result of struggling with highly challenging or traumatic events. Instead of being debilitated by trauma, individuals may experience personal growth, greater appreciation for life, improved relationships, or a deeper sense of personal strength.

Positive Psychology

While psychology has a history of focusing on understanding and treating problems, recent research has pushed for a focus on human flourishing.

Positive psychologists use scientific methods to study human flourishing, with the goals of discovering and promoting strengths and virtues that help individuals and communities to thrive.

Subjective well-being is your perception of being happy or satisfied with life. Happiness is relative to our own experiences and to others’ success.
A good mood brightens people’s perceptions of the world. Happy people tend to be healthy, energized, and satisfied with life, which makes them more willing to help others (the feel-good, do-good phenomenon).
The moods triggered by good or bad events seldom last beyond that day. Even significant good events, such as sudden wealth, seldom increase happiness for long.

Maintaining a Healthy Mind

Aerobic exercise is sustained, oxygen-consuming activity that increases heart and lung fitness. It increases arousal, leads to muscle relaxation and sounder sleep, triggers the production of neurotransmitters, and enhances self-image. It can relieve depression and is associated with longer life and better cognitive functioning in later life.

Relaxation and meditation have been shown to reduce stress by relaxing muscles, lowering blood pressure, improving immune functioning, and lessening anxiety and depression. Mindfulness meditation is a reflective practice of attending to current experiences in a nonjudgmental and accepting manner. Massage therapy also relaxes muscles and reduces depression.

Free Yale Course on Well-Being

Elements of Happiness

Everyone wants to be happy, right? If it's something everyone wants, why are so many people unhappy? There are a variety of factors that contribute to whether or not we feel happy:

Personality
- The competitive, hard-driving, impatient, verbally aggressive, and (especially) anger-prone Type A personality is more likely to experience stress, frustration, and unhappiness compared with relaxed, easygoing Type B personalities.
Perception/Perspective
- Adaptation-level Phenomenon: our tendency to form judgments relative to a neutral level defined by prior experience
  - Example: As a kid, you were thrilled when your grandparents sent you $5 for your birthday. Now that you’re older, you are less impressed by $5.
- Relative Deprivation: the perception that one is worse off than those with whom one compares themself to
  - Example: You were thrilled when your parents bought you a used car until your friend’s parents bought him a brand new high-end car.

Studies of people with an optimistic outlook show that their immune system is stronger, their blood pressure does not increase as sharply in response to stress, their recovery from heart bypass surgery is faster, and their life expectancy is longer.

Social support promotes health by calming us, by reducing blood pressure and stress hormones, and by fostering stronger immune functioning. We can significantly reduce our stress and increase our health by building and maintaining relationships with family and friends, and by finding meaning even in difficult times.

How-to Be Happy

Take control of your time.

Act happy.

Seek work and leisure that engage your skills.

Buy shared experiences rather than things.

Exercise.

Give your body the sleep it wants.

Give priority to close relationships.

Focus beyond self.

Count your blessings and record your gratitude.

Psychological Disorders

Defining Disorders

A psychological disorder is a syndrome (collection of symptoms) marked by a clinically significant disturbance in an individual’s cognition, emotion regulation, or behavior. This loose definition of disorders is broken down into the 3 D’s: dysfunctional, deviant, and distressing.

Dysfunctional: interfering with normal day-to-day functioning
Deviant: behavior is abnormal
Distressing/Maladaptive: behavior causes significant psychological, emotional, physical, or social harm

In the United States, the most common tool for describing and estimating the prevalence of mental illness is the American Psychological Association’s Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders or DSM, which is currently in its fifth edition. Each edition is edited to provide more information and update existing disorders. The World Health Organization also created a diagnostic manual called the International Classification of Disorders or ICD-10.

Many people think a diagnostic label means being seen as tainted, weak, and weird. Because of this, many psychologists believe we should use extreme caution in diagnosing and labeling.

However, negative views/stigma come from popular cultural views of mental illness, and not from the DSM. [Does a insomnia diagnosis create stigma? No. Bipolar diagnosis? Yes.]

The DSM may contain the information to correct inaccurate perceptions of mental illness.

Criticisms of the DSM-V:

The DSM calls too many people “disordered.”
The border between diagnoses, or between disorder and normal, seems arbitrary.
Decisions about what is a disorder seem to include value judgments; is depression necessarily deviant?
Diagnostic labels direct how we view and interpret the world, telling us which behavior and mental states to see as disordered.
- Disorders don’t equal danger

The Medical Model

Prior to the 19th century, understanding of psychological disorders was limited and treatment options were barbaric. The discovery that the disease of syphilis causes mental symptoms (by infecting the brain) suggested a medical model for mental illness - the concept that psychological disorders have physical causes that can be diagnosed, treated, and, in most cases, cured often through treatment in a hospital

Psychological disorders can be seen as psychopathology, an illness of the mind. Disorders can be diagnosed, labeled as a collection of symptoms that tend to go together. People with disorders can be treated, attended to, given therapy, all with a goal of restoring mental health. Clinical psychologists work with physicians to understand the mind and body link.

If you saw a person in a wheelchair, you would assume they were in a wheelchair for a legitimate reason. You wouldn't tell them to "just get up an walk" or say they were "lazy". The same should be true for those suffering from psychological disorders. You can't tell a depressed person to "just be happy" or an anxious person to "not worry so much".

The Biopsychosocial Model

Although the medical model views a mental illness as a physical condition. Other areas also influence our behavior, thoughts and feelings.

Biological
Psychological
Social-Cultural

Depression and schizophrenia occur worldwide, while other disorders vary from culture to culture. Culture-bound syndromes are disorders which only seem to exist within certain cultures; they demonstrate how culture can play a role in both causing and defining a disorder.

Susto: (Latin America) severe anxiety, restlessness and a fear of black magic
Tajin-kyofusho: (Japan)social anxiety about one’s appearance leading to social withdrawal
Eating Disorders: (USA/Europe) Bulimia and Anorexia
Amok: (Malaysia) sudden outburst of violent behavior

The biopsychosocial approach gave way to the stress vulnerability model, which suggests that individual characteristics combine with environmental stressors to increase or decrease the likelihood of developing a psychological disorder.

Schizophrenia has a genetic component, but the gene can lay dormant unless switched on by environmental factors, like a traumatic event. This is often why schizophrenia doesn’t present itself until adolescence or early adulthood.

Diathesis-Stress Model

The diathesis-stress model is a psychological theory that suggests that mental disorders develop as a result of an interaction between a pre-existing vulnerability (diathesis) and external stressors. A person with a genetic or biological predisposition to a mental illness may not develop the disorder unless triggered by stressful life events.

Suicide

Each year, over 800,000 despairing people worldwide will elect a permanent solution to what might have been a temporary problem. For those that have been anxious, the risk of suicide is tripled. For those that have been depressed, the threat is quintupled. Contrary to popular belief, the risk of suicide is greatest is not when they are in the depths of depression, but rather when people begin to rebound.

Prevalence

National Differences - In Britain, Italy, & Spain, suicide rates are half of what is seen in the US, Canada, and Australia.
Racial Differences - In the US, whites and native Americans are twice as likely to commit suicide as African Americans and Hispanics.
Age Differences - The risk of suicide is highest among people 45-64 years of age. (85+ is 2nd.)
Gender Differences - Women are more likely to attempt suicide, while men are more likely to end their lives.
Time Differences - Suicide rates are highest on Wednesdays and during the months of April and May.

How to Help

If a friend or family member talks about suicide:

Take it seriously.
- Killing yourself isn’t something to joke about. Math homework is not your “13th reason”.
Listen and sympathize.
Connect the person with a professional: counselor or suicide prevention agency.
Find a trusted adult to help the person.

Categorizing Disorders

Disorder Categories

The DSM introduced a multi-axial approach in its third edition to help licensed professionals make comprehensive evaluations of a client's level of functioning. Because mental illnesses often impact many different life areas, the DSM uses five "axes" or dimensions to ensure that all factors—psychological, biological, and environmental—were considered when making a mental health diagnosis.

Axis I: Clinical Syndromes
- Mental health and substance use disorders that cause significant impairment.
Axis II: Personality Disorders & Intellectual Disability
- Personality disorders cause significant problems in how a person relates to the world, while intellectual development disorders are characterized by intellectual impairment and deficits in other areas such as self-care and interpersonal skills.
Axis III: General Medical Conditions
- Medical conditions that contribute to Axis I/II
Axis IV: Psychosocial and Environmental Problems
- Stressors that contribute to the rise of or worsening of Axis I/II (ex. divorce, grief, unemployment, etc.)
Axis V: Global Assessment of Functioning
- How is the client handling this? Can they effectively manage their symptoms?

Verywell Mind

Please Note:

As we discuss disorders, it is important not to judge.

You don't know who among you may struggle with a psychological disorder, and/or loves someone who struggles with a disorder. While many behaviors may seem abnormal, they are sometimes beyond the person's control. Remember, psychological disorders are illnesses of the mind. They can't be prevented but they can be treated.

Furthermore, do not to believe yourself capable of diagnosing yourself or others. You need to attend medical school first. The information provided is merely a brief overview.

If you think a friend or family member may be experiencing symptoms of mental illness, talk to them about your observations, show you care, and encourage them to seek help if appropriate.

If you think you may be experiencing symptoms of mental illness, discuss that with a licensed professional.

Anxiety Disorders

Overview

The anxiety disorders are marked by distressing, persistent anxiety or maladaptive behaviors that reduce anxiety. For example, social anxiety disorder is extreme fear and avoidance of social settings.

Many patients fear something awful will happen to them, thus they are in a state of intense apprehension, uneasiness, uncertainty, or fear. Specific anxiety disorders include the following:

Generalized
Panic
Phobia
OCD
PTSD

Generalized

Generalized anxiety disorder (or GAD) is an anxiety disorder in which a person is continually tense, apprehensive, and in a state of autonomic nervous system arousal. The patient is constantly tense and worried, feels inadequate, is oversensitive, can’t concentrate and suffers from insomnia; all of this without any apparent reason.

Panic

Panic disorder is an anxiety disorder marked by unpredictable, minutes-long episodes of intense dread in which a person may experience terror and accompanying chest pain, choking, or other frightening sensations often followed by worry over a possible next attack.

Some with panic disorder experience agoraphobia, or the fear and avoidance of situations, such as crowds or wide open places, where one has felt loss of control or panic.

Phobias

A phobia is a persistent, irrational fear and avoidance of a specific object, activity, or situation.

We all have fears, but it is not classified as a phobia unless we have an extreme reaction to it.

Fear of spiders, or arachnophobia, is relatively common. If you see a live spider, scream, and urge someone to kill it, that’s not a phobia. If you bolt from the room when someone draws a cartoon spider during Pictionary, it’s a phobia.

OCD

Obsessive-compulsive disorder, or OCD, is an anxiety disorder marked by unwanted repetitive thoughts (obsessions), actions (compulsions), or both.

Can your foods not touch? Do you have to check the locks a certain number of times before leaving the house? Is there a nighttime ritual that must be followed exactly or you can’t sleep? These behaviors are characteristic of those suffering from OCD.

PTSD

Post-traumatic stress disorder (or PTSD) is characterized by haunting memories, nightmares, hypervigilance, social withdrawal, jumpy anxiety, numbness of feeling, and/or insomnia that lingers for four weeks or more after a traumatic experience.

Let’s say you get into a serious car accident. Thankfully, you’re okay, but your car was destroyed and the paramedics tell you you’re lucky to be alive. For weeks after the accident, you refuse to drive a car, are ill with anxiety as a passenger, have nightmares reliving the accident, and start trembling at the sound of car horns. This would be an example of PTSD.

Mood Disorders

Overview

A mood disorder is characterized by extreme or inappropriate emotions. Mood disorders are divided into two groups - unipolar (one emotion) or bipolar (two emotions).

Influences on Mood Disorders:

Genetic - Both depressive and bipolar disorders run in families.
Neuroscientific - Neurotransmitters like serotonin and norepinephrine influence mood and behavior.
Nutrition - Those who follow the “Mediterranean Diet”, which is heavy on vegetables and fish, have a lowered risk of heart disease, stroke, cognitive decline, and depression.
Social-Cognitive - Surrounding oneself with positive influences and a positive environment can minimize the risk of developing depression.

Depression

Major Depressive Disorder (aka depression) is a mood disorder in which a person experiences, in the absence of drugs or another medical condition, two or more weeks with five or more symptoms, at least one of which must be either depressed mood or loss of interest/please (anhedonia).

To be diagnosed with major depressive disorder or another depressive disorder, the patient must exhibit one or both of the following:

Depressed mood most of the day, and/or
Markedly diminished interest or pleasure in activities

Plus three or more of these listed below:

Significant increase or decrease in appetite or weight
Insomnia, sleeping too much, or disrupted sleep
Lethargy, or physical agitation
Fatigue or loss of energy nearly every day
Worthlessness, or excessive/inappropriate guilt
Daily problems in thinking, concentrating, and/or making decisions
Recurring thoughts of death and suicide

Some people make an unfair criticism of themselves or others with major depression: “There is nothing to be depressed about.” If someone with asthma has an attack, do we say, “what do you have to be gasping about?”. It is bad enough to have MDD that persists even under “good” circumstances. Don’t add criticism by implying the depression is an exaggerated response.

Depression is the #1 reason people seek mental health services.
Depression appears worldwide:
Per year, depressive episodes happen to about 6 percent of men and about 9 percent of women.
Over the course of a lifetime, 12 percent of Canadians and 17 percent of Americans experience depression.

Other Forms of Depression

Dysthymia (Persistent Depressive Disorder) - chronic or long-lasting depression
Postpartum Depression - type of depression that occurs after childbirth due to changes in hormones and anxiety over parenting; often mild and referred to as the “Baby Blues” but can be dangerous if left untreated
Seasonal Affective Disorder - depression that is experienced during the winter months based not on temperature, but on amount of sunlight (or lack thereof); treated with light therapy.

Bipolar

Bipolar disorder (formerly known as manic-depressive disorder) is when a person alternates between the hopelessness and lethargy of depression and the overexcited state of mania. When a depressive episode ends, a euphoric, overly talkative wildly energetic and extremely optimistic state called mania follows, after which the person goes back to depression or returns to normal.

Schizophrenia

Overview

Schizophrenia (literally translates to “split mind”) is a disorder characterized by delusions (false beliefs), hallucinations (false sensory experiences), disorganized thoughts, and/or inappropriate emotional expression.

Schizophrenia is one of the most heavily researched psychological disorders, yet scientists disagree on its root cause.

Dopamine Overactivity
Abnormal Brain Activity & Anatomy
Prenatal Environment
Genetics

Onset of Schizophrenia:

About 1 in every 100 people are diagnosed with schizophrenia.
Onset usually in late adolescence or early adulthood- usually 19-21.
Men experience schizophrenic symptoms earlier, more severely, and more often than women.
Most do not realize they are mentally ill.

Chronic schizophrenia is when schizophrenic symptoms appear in adolescence in early adulthood, but psychotic episodes become more frequent and severe as they age. Acute schizophrenia can begin at any age and is usually in response to a traumatic event.

Symptoms

Schizophrenia was once divided into categories based on the symptoms, but researchers found that many patients would alternate between types. To help evaluate treatment options, psychologists now explain schizophrenia in terms of positive and negative symptoms. Positive symptoms feature the addition of abnormal behavior while negative symptoms feature the subtraction of normal behavior.

Positive Symptoms - an addition of inappropriate emotions and/or behaviors

Hallucinations: perception of sensory input without physical sources
Delusions: nonsensical thoughts or beliefs
Disorganized thought/speech
Bizarre movements/actions

Negative Symptoms - a lack of appropriate emotions and/or behaviors

Flat affect (lack of emotional expression)
Reduced social interaction
Anhedonia
Alogia (speaking less or not at all)
Catatonia (moving less or not at all)

Dissociative Disorders

Overview

Dissociative disorders are controversial and rare disorders in which conscious awareness becomes separated from previous memories, thoughts, and/or feelings.

Dissociative Amnesia - sudden loss of memory or change in identity due to memory loss
Dissociative Identity Disorder - a.k.a. multiple personality disorder

Dissociative Identity Disorder

Dissociative Identity Disorder (or DID) is a rare dissociative disorder in which a person exhibits two or more distinct and alternating personalities.

commonly have a history of childhood abuse or trauma
often misdiagnosed or exaggerated → Sybil

Alternate theories of DID:

Role playing
Cultural perception (“evil spirits”)
Therapy makes it worse

Personality Disorders

Overview

Personality disorders are inflexible and enduring patterns of behavior that impair social functioning. Because the symptoms often mimic other disorders and/or patients don't recognize their behavior as problematic, personality disorders are difficult to detect and thus there is limited research on them.

There are three clusters of personality disorders:

Cluster A - odd/eccentric
- Schizoid Personality Disorder: uncommon condition in which people avoid social activities, shy away from interaction with others; lack desire/skills to form close personal relationships; To others, appears dull or humorless, doesn't tend to show emotion, may appear as though they don’t care; may seem aloof but actually feel lonely
Cluster B - dramatic/erratic
- Antisocial Personality Disorder: Lack of empathy, morality; Disobeys laws, ethical rules, lacks conscience; Little or no regard for other people’s feelings; Manipulative, impulsive, lacks sense of guilt; Reckless disregard for safety of self or others; Views the world as hostile and looks out only for themselves; May be charming, personable and friendly
- Borderline Personality Disorder: pervasive pattern of instability in interpersonal relationships, self-image and emotions very impulsive, often demonstrating self-injurious behaviors; frantic efforts to avoid real or imagined abandonment, related to an intolerance of being alone, need to have other people with them at all times; inappropriate anger, chronic feelings of emptiness
- Histrionic Personality Disorder: uncomfortable when not the center of attention; Inappropriate sexual seductive or provocative behavior; Displays rapidly shifting and shallow emotions; Show self dramatization, theatricality, exaggerated expression of emotion; Considers relationships to be more intimate than reality
- Narcissistic Personality Disorder: Having an unwarranted sense of self-importance; Lacks empathy, overly self involved; Preoccupied with fantasies of unlimited success, power, brilliance, beauty, or ideal love; Can only associate with equally “special” individuals; Sense of entitlement
Cluster C - anxious/fearful
- Avoidant Personality Disorder: Extreme shyness, feelings of inadequacy, sensitivity to rejection/evaluation; individuals feel inferior to others, avoid activities that involve interpersonal contact; feels socially inept, reluctant to take risks to avoid embarrassment

Misc. Disorders

Feeding/Eating Disorders

Anorexia Nervosa: an eating disorder in which a person (usually an adolescent female) maintains a starvation diet despite being significantly underweight; sometimes engaging in excessive exercise
Bulimia Nervosa: an eating disorder in which a person’s binge eating (usually of high calorie foods) is followed by inappropriate weight loss behavior, such as purging, laxative use, and/or excessive exercise
Binge Eating Disorder: significant episodes of excessive eating followed by distress, disgust, or guilt (but without the compensatory behavior seen in bulimia nervosa)

Specific Learning Disorders

Neurodevelopmental disorders are a group of conditions that involve developmental deficits in the brain and nervous system. These disorders typically manifest early in development and affect areas such as communication, learning, and behavior. Examples include autism spectrum disorder, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), and intellectual disabilities.

Autism

Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a neurodevelopmental condition characterized by differences in communication, social interaction, and behavior. It is called a "spectrum" because it affects individuals differently and to varying degrees. The exact causes of ASD are not fully understood, but genetics and environmental factors likely play a role. Typically made through behavioral evaluations, developmental screenings, and observations by specialists (e.g., psychologists or developmental pediatricians).

Core Features and Symptoms of ASD:

Difficulty with back-and-forth conversations
Trouble understanding or using nonverbal cues (e.g., facial expressions, eye contact, gestures)
Challenges in developing, maintaining, and understanding relationships
Repetitive movements or speech (e.g., hand-flapping, echolalia)
Insistence on routines and resistance to change
Intense and focused interests in specific topics
Unusual reactions to sensory input (e.g., being overly sensitive to lights, sounds, or textures)

Treatment

Overview of Therapy

Psychotherapy is a treatment involving psychological techniques; consists of interactions between a trained therapist and someone seeking to overcome psychological difficulties or achieve personal growth.

Biomedical therapy is the use of prescribed medications or procedures that act directly on the person’s physiology.

The eclectic approach to psychotherapy uses techniques from a variety of different therapies to treat a patient.

Approaches to Therapy

Psychoanalysis

Championed by Sigmund Freud, psychoanalysis is a therapeutic approach which involves techniques to uncover content from the patient’s unconscious mind. These techniques include free association and dream interpretation to release previously repressed feelings, allowing the patient to gain self-insight. Psychoanalysts will use interpretation (notes on hidden meanings or repressed content) to help patients achieve this.

Challenges to Psychoanalysis:

Resistance: blocking from consciousness of anxiety-laden material
Transference: misplaced feelings for one’s therapist (anger, resentment, love, lust, etc.)

Psychodynamic therapy is derived from psychoanalysis and views the individuals as responding to unconscious forces and childhood experiences, and seeks to enhance self-insight.

Humanistic

The humanistic approach to therapy was championed by Carl Rogers and emphasizes people’s innate potential for self-fulfillment. To achieve this goal, humanistic therapists try to give clients new insights, thus their techniques are often referred to as insight therapies (aim to improve psychological functioning by increasing a person’s awareness of underlying motives and defenses).

Carl Rogers developed the widely-used technique of client-centered therapy, in which the therapist uses techniques such as active listening (hearing a client without providing judgment, opinion, or interruption while repeating or clarifying key points to demonstrate you have been paying attention) within an accepting, genuine, and empathetic environment to facilitate a client’s growth. Rogers also encouraged therapists to demonstrate unconditional positive regard (a caring, accepting, nonjudgmental attitude) for their clients.

Behaviorsm

Behavior therapy applies learning principles to the elimination of unwanted behaviors.

This can involve counterconditioning, or procedures that use classical conditioning to evoke new responses to stimuli that are triggering unwanted behaviors, or operant conditioning procedures, such as modeling, positive reinforcement, or token economies, where patients earn points or tokens for exhibiting desired behaviors that can be exchanged for rewards.

Exposure therapy: forcing patients to confront their fears
- Virtual Reality
- Ex. Forcing someone with a fear of spiders to hold one
Systematic desensitization: in a relaxed state incrementally expose the person to the object of anxiety
- Ex. Slowly reducing a fear of dogs through increasing steps of exposure. First they have to hold a picture of a dog, then a stuffed animal, then be in the same room as a live dog, until finally they can pet a dog without extreme fear.
Aversive conditioning: substitute a negative response with a positive one by pair undesirable behavior with negative stimulus
- Ex. being prescribed medication that makes you ill if you ingest alcohol to curb addiction

A popular integrative therapy combines the technique of changing one’s thinking with techniques to change one’s actions known as cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT). Like cognitive therapy, CBT works to make patients aware of their negative thinking while also practicing more positive behavior, as seen in behavior therapies.

Helps patients act out their new and improved ways of thinking and behaving before putting it into practice
Helpful for the treatment of OCD, depression, and eating disorders

Cognitive

Cognitive therapy teaches people new, more adaptive ways of thinking. This approach is based on the assumption that thoughts intervene between events and our emotional reactions.

Rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT) is a confrontational cognitive therapy developed by Albert Ellis that vigorously challenges people’s illogical, self-defeating attitudes and assumptions.

Miscellaneous

Group therapy, or treatment conducted in with several patients at once, can provide benefits through group interaction.

Shows patients they’re not alone or abnormal
Saves time & money
Allows for patients to practice and develop social skills
Gives variety of feedback

A special type of group therapy is family therapy, which treats people in the context of their family system, viewing an individual’s unwanted behaviors as influenced by and/or a by-product of the family dynamic.

Hypnosis has proven effective in the treatment of addiction, so more psychotherapists are exploring ways to use hypnosis to unlock unconscious desires, access repressed memories, erase instances of severe trauma, and promote positive thought patterns.

Biomedical Therapy

Since the 1950s, discoveries in psychopharmacology (the study of the effects of drugs on the mind and behavior) have revolutionized the treatment of people with severe disorders. There are two types of biomedical treatment - medication and procedures.

Medications:

Antipsychotics
Anti-anxiety
Antidepressants
Mood stabilizers

Procedures:

Transcranial Electrical Stimulation
Magnetic Stimulation
Deep-brain stimulation
Psychosurgery

Unit 5 Kahoot

Unit 5 Quizlet

Unit Five Vocabulary

active listening: a communication technique used in therapy and counseling that involves fully concentrating, understanding, responding, and empathizing with what the speaker is saying, through verbal and nonverbal cues, to facilitate deeper understanding and rapport.
acute schizophrenia: a subtype of schizophrenia characterized by sudden onset of psychotic symptoms, often accompanied by emotional turmoil, confusion, or behavioral disturbances, which may require immediate intervention and stabilization.
adaptation-level phenomenon: a cognitive bias in which individuals adapt to and become accustomed to their current level of environmental stimuli or life circumstances, thereby recalibrating their expectations and judgments over time.
adverse childhood experiences: Traumatic events occurring before age 18 that can have negative, lasting effects on health and well-being.
aerobic exercise: physical activity that increases heart rate and oxygen consumption over an extended period, such as running, swimming, or cycling, which has been shown to improve physical health, mental well-being, and cognitive function.
agoraphobia: an anxiety disorder characterized by fear or avoidance of situations or places where escape or help may be difficult or embarrassing in the event of a panic attack or other anxiety symptoms, such as crowded spaces, public transportation, or open spaces.
alarm stage: The initial reaction to stress, activating the fight-or-flight response.
American Psychological Association (APA): The leading scientific and professional organization representing psychology in the United States.
anorexia nervosa: an eating disorder characterized by an intense fear of gaining weight or becoming fat, leading to severe restriction of food intake, excessive exercise, and distorted body image, often resulting in significant weight loss and medical complications.
anti-social personality disorder: a personality disorder characterized by a pervasive pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others, lack of empathy or remorse, and impulsive or antisocial behavior, often beginning in adolescence or early adulthood.
antianxiety drugs: also known as anxiolytics or benzodiazepines, medications used to alleviate symptoms of anxiety disorders by enhancing the activity of neurotransmitters such as gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA), which has calming effects on the central nervous system.
antidepressants: medications used to treat symptoms of depressive disorders by increasing the levels of neurotransmitters such as serotonin, norepinephrine, or dopamine in the brain, which are implicated in mood regulation and emotional well-being.
antipsychotic drugs: also known as neuroleptics, medications used to manage symptoms of psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia, by blocking dopamine receptors in the brain and reducing hallucinations, delusions, and disorganized thinking.
anxiety disorders: a group of mental health conditions characterized by excessive, persistent, and uncontrollable feelings of anxiety, fear, or apprehension, often accompanied by physiological symptoms such as rapid heartbeat or sweating.
approach-approach conflict: a type of conflict in which an individual must choose between two desirable or attractive options, each of which has its own benefits and rewards, making the decision difficult.
approach-avoidance conflict: a type of conflict in which an individual is attracted to a goal or outcome (approach) but also experiences negative feelings or consequences associated with pursuing that goal (avoidance), leading to ambivalence and uncertainty.
ataque de nervios: a culture-bound syndrome prevalent among Latinos, characterized by uncontrollable shouting, crying, and trembling.
attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder a neurodevelopmental disorder characterized by symptoms of inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity that interfere with functioning and development, typically diagnosed in childhood and often persisting into adulthood.
autism spectrum disorders: a group of neurodevelopmental disorders characterized by deficits in social communication and interaction, restricted interests, repetitive behaviors, and sensory sensitivities, varying in severity and presentation.
aversive conditioning: a behavior therapy technique that pairs an undesired behavior with an unpleasant stimulus or consequence, with the aim of reducing or eliminating the behavior through negative reinforcement or punishment.
avoidance-avoidance conflict: a type of conflict in which an individual must choose between two undesirable or aversive options, each of which has its own negative consequences, making the decision challenging.
avoidant personality disorder: a disorder characterized by social inhibition, feelings of inadequacy, and hypersensitivity to negative evaluation.
B. F. Skinner: an American psychologist and behaviorist known for his research on operant conditioning, reinforcement schedules, and the development of behavior therapy techniques such as operant conditioning and token economies.
behavioral perspective: an approach to psychology that focuses on observable behaviors and the ways they are learned.
behavior therapy: a type of psychotherapy that focuses on modifying maladaptive behaviors and promoting adaptive ones through techniques such as reinforcement, punishment, modeling, and exposure, based on principles of learning and conditioning.
biofeedback: a technique that teaches individuals to control physiological processes such as heart rate and muscle tension by providing real-time feedback.
biological perspective: an approach to psychology that focuses on the physiological bases of behavior and mental processes.
biomedical therapy: the use of biological or medical interventions, such as medication, electroconvulsive therapy (ECT), or psychosurgery, to treat mental disorders by targeting underlying biological or neurological mechanisms.
bipolar disorder: formerly known as manic-depressive illness, a mood disorder characterized by alternating episodes of depression and mania or hypomania, which are periods of elevated mood, energy, and activity.
bipolar I: type of bipolar disorder characterized by at least one manic episode, often with depressive episodes.
bipolar II: type of bipolar disorder characterized by hypomanic episodes alternating with major depressive episodes.
borderline personality disorder: disorder characterized by instability in mood, self-image, and behavior, often resulting in impulsive actions and unstable relationships.
broaden-and-build theory: a theory proposed by Barbara Fredrickson suggesting that positive emotions broaden individuals' thought-action repertoires and build psychological resources, promoting resilience, creativity, and personal growth over time.
bulimia nervosa: an eating disorder characterized by recurrent episodes of binge eating (eating large amounts of food in a short period) followed by compensatory behaviors such as vomiting, fasting, or excessive exercise, to prevent weight gain.
Carl Rogers: an American psychologist and one of the founders of humanistic psychology, known for his development of person-centered therapy and his emphasis on the importance of empathy, congruence, and unconditional positive regard in therapeutic relationships.
catatonia: state of unresponsiveness to external stimuli, often including rigid body posture or repetitive movements.
catharsis: a therapeutic process or emotional release through the expression or release of pent-up emotions, such as anger or grief, often facilitated through talking, writing, or artistic expression, which may promote psychological healing and relief.
chronic schizophrenia: a subtype of schizophrenia characterized by persistent and long-term symptoms, impairment, and functional decline, typically with a gradual onset and poor response to treatment.
cluster A personality disorders: group of personality disorders characterized by odd or eccentric behaviors. Includes paranoid, schizoid, and schizotypal personality disorders.
cluster B personality disorders: group of personality disorders characterized by dramatic, emotional, or erratic behaviors. Includes antisocial, borderline, histrionic, and narcissistic personality disorders.
cluster C personality disorders: group of personality disorders characterized by anxious or fearful behaviors. Includes avoidant, dependent, and obsessive-compulsive personality disorders.
cognitive perspective: an approach to psychology that focuses on mental processes such as thinking, memory, and problem-solving
cognitive therapy: a form of psychotherapy that focuses on identifying and changing dysfunctional thought patterns, beliefs, and cognitive distortions that contribute to psychological distress and maladaptive behaviors, through cognitive restructuring and behavioral interventions.
cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT): a widely used form of psychotherapy that combines cognitive restructuring (changing negative thought patterns) with behavioral interventions (changing maladaptive behaviors), to treat a variety of mental health conditions.
compulsion: repetitive, rule-based behaviors that a person feels compelled to perform to reduce anxiety.
confirmation bias: a cognitive bias that involves seeking, interpreting, or recalling information in a way that confirms preexisting beliefs or hypotheses, while ignoring or discounting evidence that contradicts them, which can lead to errors in judgment or decision-making.
coping: the cognitive, emotional, and behavioral efforts to manage, reduce, or tolerate stressors, challenges, or adverse circumstances, in order to adapt and maintain psychological well-being.
coronary heart disease: a medical condition characterized by the narrowing or blockage of coronary arteries, leading to reduced blood flow to the heart muscle, which may result in chest pain (angina), heart attack, or other cardiovascular complications.
counterconditioning: a behavior therapy technique used to replace or counteract maladaptive responses (such as fear or anxiety) with adaptive ones, by pairing the feared or aversive stimulus with a positive or neutral stimulus to change the emotional response.
culture-bound disorders: psychological disorders found only in certain cultures.
delusion: a fixed, false belief that is firmly held despite evidence to the contrary, often involving beliefs of persecution, grandiosity, or control, which are characteristic symptoms of psychotic disorders such as schizophrenia.
dependent personality disorder: disorder characterized by a pervasive and excessive need to be taken care of, leading to submissive and clinging behavior.
depressive disorders: also known as mood disorders, a group of mental health conditions characterized by persistent feelings of sadness, hopelessness, or loss of interest or pleasure in activities, leading to significant impairment in functioning.
diagnosis: the process of identifying and labeling a disorder based on its symptoms and signs.
dialectical behavior therapy (DBT): type of cognitive-behavioral therapy that focuses on teaching coping skills to manage stress, regulate emotions, and improve relationships.
diathesis-stress model: a psychological theory proposing that the development of psychological disorders results from an interaction between predisposing vulnerabilities (diatheses) and environmental stressors, such as traumatic events or chronic stress, which can trigger or exacerbate symptoms.
discrimination : unjust or prejudicial treatment of different categories of people, often based on race, age, or gender.
distress: negative stress that can cause anxiety and decrease performance.
dissociation: a mental process involving a disruption or detachment from one's thoughts, feelings, memories, or identity, often as a defense mechanism against overwhelming stress, trauma, or psychological distress
dissociative amnesia: a dissociative disorder characterized by partial or total memory loss of important personal information, events, or experiences, often associated with trauma or stress.
dissociative disorders: a group of mental health conditions characterized by disruptions or disturbances in memory, identity, consciousness, or perception, often as a response to severe trauma or stress.
dissociative identity disorder: formerly known as multiple personality disorder, is a dissociative disorder characterized by the presence of two or more distinct personality states or identities, which may alternate control over an individual's behavior.
dopamine hypothesis: the theory that schizophrenia is associated with an excess of dopamine activity in the brain.
dream interpretation: psychoanalytic technique involving the interpretation of dreams to uncover unconscious thoughts and desires.
DSM-5-TR (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th Edition, Text Revision): a widely used classification system published by the American Psychiatric Association, providing criteria for diagnosing and classifying mental disorders based on symptoms, behaviors, and clinical presentations.
eclectic approach: involves integrating principles, techniques, and strategies from multiple theoretical perspectives or therapeutic modalities, tailored to meet the individual needs and preferences of clients.
electroconvulsive therapy (ECT): a medical procedure used to treat severe depression, bipolar disorder, or other mental health conditions, by inducing controlled seizures in the brain through electrical stimulation, to alleviate symptoms and improve mood.
emotion-focused coping: efforts to regulate or manage the emotional distress associated with stressors, by seeking support, expressing emotions, or reframing the situation in order to reduce negative emotional reactions.
epigenetics: the study of changes in gene expression or activity that are not caused by alterations in the DNA sequence itself, but rather by chemical modifications to the DNA molecule or associated proteins, influenced by environmental factors and experiences.
eustress: positive, motivating stress that can improve performance and well-being.
evolutionary perspective: an approach to psychology that focuses on the role of evolutionary processes in shaping behavior.
exhaustion stage: the stage where the body's resources are depleted and it becomes susceptible to illness.
exposure therapies: behavior therapy techniques that involve gradual and systematic exposure to feared or anxiety-provoking stimuli or situations, with the goal of reducing fear, anxiety, and avoidance behaviors through habituation and extinction of conditioned responses.
external locus of control: a belief that external forces, chance, or luck primarily determine one's life outcomes, experiences, and success, leading to feelings of powerlessness and reliance on external sources of control.
family therapy: a form of psychotherapy that involves working with families and their members to improve communication, resolve conflicts, and address interpersonal dynamics and relational patterns that contribute to psychological distress or dysfunction.
feel-good, do-good phenomenon: a psychological phenomenon whereby individuals who are in a positive mood or experience positive emotions are more likely to engage in altruistic or prosocial behavior toward others.
fight-or-flight response: the body's automatic response to a perceived threat, preparing for either confrontation or avoidance.
flat affect: lack of emotional expression often seen in individuals with schizophrenia.
free association: psychoanalytic technique in which patients say whatever comes to mind without censorship as a way of exploring the unconscious.
general adaptation syndrome: a theoretical framework proposed by Hans Selye to describe the body's physiological response to stress, involving three stages - alarm (activation of fight-or-flight response), resistance (adaptation and coping with stressors), and exhaustion (depletion of resources and increased susceptibility to illness).
generalized anxiety disorder: an anxiety disorder characterized by excessive and persistent worry or anxiety about a wide range of everyday events or activities, often accompanied by physical symptoms such as muscle tension or restlessness.
gratitude: the feeling or expression of appreciation, thankfulness, or recognition for the positive aspects of one's life, experiences, or relationships, which has been linked to greater happiness, resilience, and well-being.
group therapy: a form of psychotherapy that involves a therapist leading a group of individuals with similar mental health concerns in therapeutic discussions, activities, or exercises, to explore emotions, share experiences, and provide mutual support.
hallucination: false perception in the absence of a stimulus, such as hearing voices or seeing things that are not there.
Hans Selye: a Hungarian-Canadian endocrinologist known for his research on stress and the general adaptation syndrome, proposing that the body's response to stress involves three stages - alarm, resistance, and exhaustion.
health psychology: a subfield of psychology that focuses on the psychological factors influencing health, illness, and healthcare delivery, including the study of behaviors, attitudes, and emotions related to health outcomes and well-being.
hoarding disorder: a mental health condition characterized by persistent difficulty discarding or parting with possessions, regardless of their actual value, leading to excessive accumulation of clutter and impairment in functioning.
humanistic perspective: an approach to psychology that emphasizes personal growth, self-actualization, and free will.
hypnosis: a trance-like state of focused attention, concentration, and suggestibility induced by a trained therapist, often used in therapy to facilitate relaxation, increase receptivity to suggestions, and explore subconscious thoughts and memories.
insight therapies: psychotherapeutic approaches that aim to increase self-awareness and understanding of one's thoughts, emotions, and behaviors, with the goal of resolving psychological conflicts, gaining insight into underlying issues, and promoting personal growth and well-being.
internal locus of control: a belief that one's own actions, efforts, and decisions primarily determine one's life outcomes, experiences, and success, leading to feelings of autonomy, responsibility, and self-efficacy.
interpretation: the therapist's analysis and explanation of the underlying meanings, motives, or conflicts revealed through the client's thoughts, behaviors, dreams, or associations, with the aim of fostering insight and understanding.
learned helplessness: a psychological phenomenon in which individuals become passive and resigned in the face of aversive stimuli or uncontrollable events, due to repeated experiences of failure or lack of control.
lithium: mood-stabilizing drug commonly used to treat bipolar disorder.
lobotomy: a form of psychosurgery that involves severing or damaging connections in the prefrontal cortex of the brain, to alleviate symptoms of severe mental illness, although it is now largely discredited due to its severe and often irreversible side effects.
major depressive disorder: a mood disorder characterized by persistent feelings of sadness, worthlessness, or hopelessness, accompanied by changes in appetite, sleep, energy levels, and concentration, lasting for at least two weeks.
mania: a distinct period of abnormally elevated or irritable mood, accompanied by increased energy, activity, talkativeness, grandiosity, and impulsivity, which may occur in bipolar disorder or other psychiatric conditions.
medical model: an approach to understanding psychological disorders that conceptualizes them as medical conditions or illnesses, with symptoms, causes, and treatments similar to physical diseases, often emphasizing biological, genetic, and neurological factors.
meditation: practice where an individual uses techniques such as mindfulness to achieve a mentally clear and emotionally calm state.
meta-analysis: a statistical method used to combine and analyze the results of multiple independent studies on a specific topic or research question, to provide a comprehensive summary of the overall findings and evaluate the strength of evidence across studies.
mindfulness meditation: a practice that involves paying attention to the present moment, with openness, curiosity, and acceptance, often through techniques such as focused breathing or body scanning, which can reduce stress, enhance self-awareness, and promote emotional regulation.
narcissistic personality disorder: disorder characterized by a long-term pattern of exaggerated self-importance, need for admiration, and lack of empathy.
neurodevelopmental disorders: a group of conditions characterized by impairments in brain function, development, or behavior that manifest early in childhood, such as autism spectrum disorders and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.
obsession: persistent, intrusive thoughts, impulses, or images that cause significant anxiety.
obsessive-compulsive disorder: an anxiety disorder characterized by intrusive, unwanted thoughts, images, or urges (obsessions) and repetitive behaviors or rituals performed to alleviate anxiety or prevent perceived harm (compulsions).
obsessive-compulsive personality disorder: disorder characterized by preoccupation with orderliness, perfectionism, and control.
panic attack: sudden episode of intense fear or anxiety with physical symptoms such as heart palpitations and shortness of breath.
panic disorder: an anxiety disorder characterized by recurrent, unexpected panic attacks, which are sudden episodes of intense fear or discomfort, accompanied by physical symptoms such as chest pain, shortness of breath, or dizziness.
paranoid personality disorder: characterized by pervasive distrust and suspicion of others.
persistent depressive disorder: also known as dysthymia, a chronic form of depression characterized by persistent low mood, irritability, or hopelessness, lasting for at least two years in adults (one year in children or adolescents).
person-centered therapy: developed by Carl Rogers, a humanistic approach to psychotherapy that emphasizes empathy, unconditional positive regard, and genuineness in the therapeutic relationship, with the belief that clients possess the capacity for self-understanding and growth.
personal control: the belief in one's ability to influence or control the outcomes of one's actions and experiences, which can have significant effects on motivation, coping strategies, and well-being.
personality disorders: a group of mental health conditions characterized by enduring patterns of thoughts, feelings, and behaviors that deviate from cultural expectations and cause significant distress or impairment in social, occupational, or interpersonal functioning.
phobia: an anxiety disorder characterized by an irrational or excessive fear or aversion to specific objects, situations, or activities, leading to avoidance behavior and significant distress or impairment in daily life.
positive psychology: a branch of psychology that focuses on the study of positive emotions, strengths, virtues, and factors that contribute to human flourishing, resilience, and subjective well-being.
post-traumatic stress disorder: a mental health condition that can develop after exposure to a traumatic event, such as combat, natural disaster, or assault, characterized by intrusive memories, flashbacks, avoidance, and hyperarousal symptoms.
posthypnotic suggestion: a suggestion or instruction given to an individual during hypnosis that influences their thoughts, feelings, or behaviors after they emerge from the hypnotic state, often used to promote therapeutic changes or behaviors.
posttraumatic growth: positive psychological changes, personal growth, or increased resilience experienced by individuals following a traumatic or stressful event, such as greater appreciation for life, enhanced personal strength, or a deeper sense of meaning or purpose.
problem-focused coping: efforts to directly address and manage the underlying cause of stress or problem, by seeking solutions, taking action, or making changes to the situation or environment.
psychoanalysis: a form of psychotherapy developed by Sigmund Freud, based on the exploration of unconscious conflicts, memories, and desires, with the goal of bringing unconscious material into conscious awareness and resolving psychological symptoms and distress.
psychodynamic theory: a range of psychological theories and therapeutic approaches that emphasize the role of unconscious processes, childhood experiences, and interpersonal relationships in shaping personality, behavior, and mental health.
psychological disorder: a pattern of thoughts, feelings, and/or behaviors that causes significant distress, impairment in functioning, or deviation from cultural norms, leading to disruption in daily life and relationships.
psychoneuroimmunology: an interdisciplinary field that explores the interactions between psychological processes (such as stress, emotions) and the nervous, endocrine, and immune systems, examining how these interactions influence health and disease.
psychopharmacology: the study of the effects of drugs on mental processes, emotions, behavior, and psychological disorders, as well as the development and use of medications for the treatment of mental health conditions.
psychosurgery: a surgical procedure that involves altering or removing specific areas of the brain to treat severe and refractory mental health conditions, such as obsessive-compulsive disorder or depression.
psychotherapy: also known as talk therapy or counseling, a form of treatment that involves therapeutic communication and interaction between a trained mental health professional (therapist) and an individual or group, aimed at alleviating psychological distress, resolving interpersonal conflicts, and promoting personal growth and well-being.
psychotic disorders: a group of mental health conditions characterized by psychotic symptoms, such as hallucinations, delusions, disorganized thinking, or grossly impaired reality testing, which significantly impact perception, cognition, and behavior.
psychotropic medication: drugs that affect mental processes and behavior by altering brain function.
rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT): focuses on identifying and disputing irrational beliefs, attitudes, and cognitive distortions that contribute to emotional distress and maladaptive behaviors.
relative deprivation: the perception or feeling of being deprived or disadvantaged in comparison to others, leading to feelings of resentment, frustration, or injustice, especially when expectations or standards are not met.
resilience: the capacity to adapt, bounce back, and recover from adversity, trauma, or significant life challenges, often characterized by the ability to maintain psychological well-being and functioning in the face of stressors.
resistance (to therapy): the unconscious defense mechanisms or oppositional behaviors that individuals may exhibit in therapy to avoid confronting or acknowledging painful or threatening thoughts, emotions, or memories.
resistance stage: the body's attempt to resist or adapt to the stressor.
schizophrenia spectrum disorders: a group of severe and chronic mental health conditions characterized by disturbances in thinking, perception, emotions, behavior, and social functioning, which may include hallucinations, delusions, disorganized speech, and impaired cognition.
schizoid personality disorder: characterized by a lack of interest in social relationships, a tendency towards a solitary lifestyle, and emotional coldness.
schizotypal personality disorder: characterized by severe social anxiety, thought disorder, paranoid ideation, derealization, and unconventional beliefs.
self-control: also known as self-regulation, the ability to manage, restrain, or override impulses, desires, or behaviors in order to achieve long-term goals or adhere to societal norms and standards.
Sigmund Freud: an Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, known for his theories of the unconscious mind, psychosexual development, defense mechanisms, and the therapeutic techniques of free association and dream analysis.
social anxiety disorder: an anxiety disorder characterized by intense fear or anxiety about social situations, interactions, or performance, leading to avoidance behaviors and impairment in social or occupational functioning.
sociocultural perspective: an approach to psychology that examines how social and cultural factors influence behavior.
stigma: a mark of disgrace associated with a particular condition, person, or quality.
stress: the physiological and psychological responses to demands, challenges, or threats (stressors) that disrupt the body's equilibrium or homeostasis, leading to arousal, coping efforts, and potential health consequences.
subjective well-being: an individual's overall evaluation and perception of their life satisfaction, happiness, and fulfillment, based on subjective judgments and experiences of positive and negative emotions.
systematic desensitization: a form of exposure therapy that involves gradually exposing individuals to feared or anxiety-provoking stimuli or situations, while teaching relaxation techniques, to reduce anxiety and fear responses through gradual habituation.
taijin kyofusho: culture-bound syndrome from Japan involving fear of offending or embarrassing others.
tardive dyskinesia: side effect of long-term use of antipsychotic medications, characterized by involuntary, repetitive body movements.
tend-and-befriend response: a stress response pattern observed primarily in women, involving nurturing behaviors (tending) and seeking social support and connection (befriending) in response to stressors, which may promote resilience and well-being.
therapeutic alliance: the collaborative and trusting relationship between a therapist and client in therapy, characterized by mutual respect, empathy, understanding, and agreement on goals and tasks, which is essential for successful therapy outcomes.
token economy: a behavior modification system used in therapeutic settings, schools, or institutions, in which desirable behaviors are reinforced with tokens (such as points or tokens) that can be exchanged for rewards or privileges, promoting positive behavior change.
transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS): a non-invasive procedure used to treat depression and other mental health conditions, by delivering magnetic pulses to specific areas of the brain to modulate neural activity and alleviate symptoms.
transference: the unconscious redirection of feelings, attitudes, or emotions from past relationships onto the therapist or therapeutic relationship, which can provide valuable insights into the client's internal dynamics and relational patterns.
trauma: deeply distressing or disturbing experience that can have long-term psychological effects.
unconditional positive regard: an attitude of acceptance, respect, and nonjudgmental warmth toward clients in therapy, regardless of their thoughts, feelings, or behaviors, promoting a safe and supportive therapeutic environment for self-exploration and growth.
virtual reality exposure therapy: a form of exposure therapy that uses virtual reality technology to simulate anxiety-provoking situations or environments, allowing individuals to confront and gradually overcome their fears in a controlled and safe setting.
wellness: holistic approach to health that encompasses physical, mental, and social well-being.
word salad: disorganized and incoherent speech that is a symptom of severe mental disorders like schizophrenia.

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Unit 5 Mental & Physical Health

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