hyaline cartilage can be regenerated by UCSCs. Intravenous injection of UCSCs enables treatment of diabetes, spinal myelitis, systemic lupus erythematosus, Hodgkin’s lymphoma, and congenital neuropathies. Cord blood stem cells banking avails long lasting source of stem cells for personalized therapy and regenerative medicine. functions [28]. Transplantation of PCs can restore pacemaker functions of the ailing heart [28]. In summary, ESCs can be transdifferentiated into any kinds of cells representing three germ layers of the body, being most promising source of regenerative medicine for tissue regeneration and disease therapy (Table 1). Ethical concerns limit the applications of ESCs, where set guidelines need to be followed; in that case TSPSCs, MSCs, UCSCs, BMSCs, and iPSCs can be explored as alternatives. 3. TSPSCs in Regenerative Medicine TSPSCs maintain tissue homeostasis through continuous cell division, but, unlike ESCs, TSPSCs retain stem cells plasticity and differentiation in tissue specific manner, giving rise to few types of cells (Table 1). The number of TSPSCs population to total cells population is too low; in that case their harvesting as well as in vitro manipulation is really a tricky task [29], to explore them for therapeutic scale. Human body has foundation from various types of TSPSCs; discussing the therapeutic application for all types is not feasible. This section of review discusses therapeutic application of pancreatic progenitor cells (PPCs), dental pulp stem cells (DPSCs), inner ear stem cells (IESCs), intestinal progenitor cells (IPCs), limbal progenitor stem cells (LPSCs), epithelial progenitor stem cells (EPSCs), mesoangioblasts (MABs), spermatogonial stem cells (SSCs), the skin derived precursors (SKPs), and adipose derived stem cells (AdSCs) (Figure 3; Table 1). During embryogenesis PPCs give rise to insulin-producing 𝛽-cells. The differentiation of PPCs to become 𝛽-cells is negatively regulated by insulin [30]. PPCs require active FGF and Notch signalling; growing more rapidly in community than in single cell populations 10 International Journal of Cell Biology BMSCs in regenerative medicine BM-MSC Cell perfusion and decellularization Diaphragm scaffold BM-SSC BM-HSC BM-MSC BM-PSC Application of BMSCs Applications Red marrow Separation of lymphoid and myeloid cells Allogenic transfusion (i) Stromal stem cells (ii) Hematopoietic stem cells (iii) Mesenchymal stem cells (iv) Progenitor stem cells HIV1 resistant BMSCs BMSCs Brain tissue injuries treatment Megakaryocytes Monocytes wound healing (CD14 and 90+) BMSCs Craniofacial tissue Periodontic bone formation BMSCs Intravenous transplantation in diabetic mice Restoration of erectile function in mice BMSCs Transplantation to liver of liver cirrhosis patients Regeneration of livers tissue and restoration of liver functions (CD4+) HSC and PSC CD4+ cells +3D culture +Epithelium +Spongy silk +Transplantation +3D culture +LA +HIV1 antisense ∙ CDD treatment ∙ Cancer treatment ∙ HIV1 inhibition ∙ Traumatic rain ∙ Blood clotting and Figure 6: BMSCs in regenerative medicine: bone marrow, the soft sponge bone tissue that consisted of stromal, hematopoietic, and mesenchymal and progenitor stem cells, is responsible for blood formation. Even halo-HLA matched BMSCs can cure from disease and regenerate tissue. BMSCs can regenerate craniofacial tissue, brain tissue, diaphragm tissue, and liver tissue and restore erectile function and transdifferentiation monocytes. These multipotent stem cells can cure host from cancer and infection of HIV and HCV. advocates the functional importance of niche effect in selfrenewal and transdifferentiation processes. In 3D-scaffold culture system, mice embryo derived PPCs grow into hollow organoid spheres; those finally differentiate into insulinproducing 𝛽-cell clusters [29]. The DSPSCs, responsible for maintenance of teeth health status, can be sourced from apical papilla, deciduous teeth, dental follicle, and periodontal ligaments, have emerged as regenerative medicine candidate, and might be explored for treatment of various kinds of disease including restoration neurogenic functions in teeth [31, 32]. Expansion of DSPSCs in chemically defined neuronal culture medium transforms them into a mixed population of cholinergic, GABAergic, and glutaminergic neurons; those are known to respond towards acetylcholine, GABA, and glutamine stimulations in vivo. These transformed neuronal cells express nestin, glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP), 𝛽III-tubulin, and voltage gated L-type Ca2+ channels [32]. However, absence of Na+ and K+ channels does not support spontaneous action potential generation, necessary for response generation against environmental stimulus. All together, these primordial neuronal stem cells have possible therapeutic potential for treatment of neurodental problems [32]. Sometimes, brain tumor chemotherapy can cause neurodegeneration mediated cognitive impairment, a condition known as chemobrain [33]. The intrahippocampal transplantation of human derived neuronal stem cells to cyclophosphamide behavioural decremented mice restores cognitive functions in a month time. Here the transplanted stem cells differentiate into neuronal and astroglial lineage, reduce neuroinflammation, and restore microglial functions [33]. Furthermore,