derived cones and RGCs transplantation to eye COCO (activating TGF- π½, BMP, and Wnt) & BRN3 (knock-in by CRISPER-Cas9) make ESCs become cones and RGCs form cells sheet & neuronal connection Recovery from ARMD and macular defects & restoration of vision [16, 17] Cardiovascular disease Diabetes, drugs, genetic factor, and life style ESCs-derived CMs & biomaterial coaxed ESCs Cardiomyocytes express GCaMP3, secreting vasculogenic factors, and Tbox3 differentiates ESCs into SANPCs Suppresses heart arrhythmias. CMs electrophysiologically integrate to heart as pacemaker [18, 19, 28] Liver injuries Toxins, drugs, genetic factors, and infection Transplantation of ESCs-derived hepatocytes ESCs-hepatocyte conversion is marked with expression of Cytp450, PXR, CYPA4&29, HNF4- πΌ, and UGTA1; cells in transplant repopulate injured liver tissue Regeneration of liver tissue can be used as model for screening of drugs [20, 23, 24] Diabetes Life style, heart defects, and genetics Transplantation of ESCs-derived PPCs Progenitors (CD24+, CD49+ & CD133+) differentiate into π½-cells, secrete insulin, and express PDX1, GCK, and GLUT2 Improvement in glucose level and obesity can be used for treatment of T1DM and T2DM [25, 26] Osteoarthritis When cartilage tissue wears away Transplantation of chondrocytes organoids Chondrocytes (SOX9+ & collagen-II+) form cells aggregate & remain active for 12 wks at transplantation site Regeneration of cartilage tissue can be used for treatment of injuries faced by athletes [27] TSPSCs Diabetes Life style and genetic factors Transplantation of SCs derived PPCs organoid PPCs need niche supported active FGF & Notch signalling to become π½-cell PPCs occupancy as π½-cell can treat T1DM & T2DM [25, 29, 30] Neurodental problems Accidents, age, and genetic factors Transplantation of DSPSCs as neurons Neurons express nestin, GFAP, π½III-tubulin, and L-type Ca2+ channels Possible application in treatment of neurodental abnormalities [31, 32] Acoustic problems Age, noise, drugs, and infection IESCs/IESCs-derived hair cells transplantation πΎ-secretase shuts Notch by π½-catenin & Atoh1 in lrg5+IESCs to be hair cells Cochlear regeneration leads to restoration of acoustic functions [34, 35] Intestinal degeneration Genetic factors and food borne infections IPCs derived crypt-villi organoid transplantation M π, myofibroblasts, and bacteria signals IPCs to be crypt-villi organoid tissue Regeneration of goblet mucosa can treat intestinal defects [36β38] Corneal diseases Burns, genetics, and inflammation LPSCs transplantation to corneal tissue LPSCs in transplant marked by ABCB5 differentiate into mature cornea Regeneration of corneal tissue might treat multiple eye disease [39, 40] Muscular deformities Infection, drugs, and autoimmunity Transplantation of PEG fibrinogen coaxed MABs PDGF from MABs attract vasculogenic and neurogenic cells to transplant site Muscle fibril regeneration; skeletal muscle defects treatment [41, 42] Eye disease & retinopathy Toxins, burns, and genetic factors AdSCs intravitreal transplantation AdSCs from healthy donor produce higher vasoprotective factors Restoration of vascularisation, diabetic retinopathy treatment [44, 45] Cardiac dysfunctions Age, genetic factors, and toxins Systemic infusion of CA-AdSCs myocardium CA-AdSCs to epithelium differentiation are superior to AdSCs Regeneration of ischemic myocardium [47, 48] 4 International Journal of Cell Biology Table 1: Continued. SCs Disease Factors causing disease Mode of stem cells application Physiological and mechanistic aspects of stem cells therapeutics Improvements in disease signatures & future use References MSCs Bladder deformities Cystitis, cancer, and infection Transplantation of BD-MSCs to bladder BDMSCs (CD105+, CD73+, CD34β, and CD45β) with SIS heal bladder in 10 wks Bladder regeneration from different origins MSCs [50, 51] Dental problems Infection, cancer age, and accidents Transplants of EMSCs + DSCs biopolymer tissue EMSC-DSCs and vasculogenic factors in biopolymer give rise to mature teeth units Regeneration of oral tissue and application in periodontics [31, 52] Bone degeneration Injuries and tumor autoimmunity Coaxed MSCs transplant & MSCs infusion Actin modelling by cytochalasin-D transforms MSCs into osteoblasts Regeneration of bones, reduction in injury pain [53β55] Muscle degeneration Genetic factors and work stress Coaxed MSCs transplant and MSCs infusion Alginate gel protects MSCs from immune attack and controls GFs release Regeneration of heart scar and muscle tissue in controlled way [56, 57] Alopecia Age, disease, and medicine use Transplantation of GAG-coated DPCs GAG coating mimics ECM microenvironment, promoting DPCs regeneration Regeneration of hair follicle for treatment of alopecia [58] UCSCs Congenital heart defects Developmental errors Transplantation of fibrin coaxed AFSCs Addition of VEFG to PEG coaxed AFSCs promotes organogenesis Regeneration of tissue repair for treatment of heart defects [59, 60] Diabetes Life style and genetic factors WJ-SCs, transplantation, and intravenous injection WJ-factors & M π differentiate WJ-SCs into π½-cells, decreasing IL6 & IL1 π½ Improvement in function of π½-cells leads to treatment of diabetes [7, 9, 61β63] SLE Autoimmunity Intravenous infusion of WJ-SCs WJ-SCs decrease SLEDAI & BILAG; reinfusion protects from disease