Translanguaging
Joyce West
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The term ‘translanguaging’ was first coined in Welsh as trawsiethu by a teacher, Cen Williams (Garcia and Kleyn, 2016: 11). Williams’ translanguaging emphasised the opportunity to change the language input and output, for example, learners read in one language and write in another (Garcia and Kleyn, 2016: 11). Williams (in Garcia and Kleyn, 2016: 11) had the idea of giving students the opportunity to alternate between languages in order to develop the school’s target language. Since then, ‘translanguaging’ has developed into an evidence-based teaching strategy, pedagogy and even theory - it developed far beyond expectations.
The term ‘translanguaging’ was first coined in Welsh as trawsiethu by a teacher, Cen Williams (Garcia and Kleyn, 2016: 11). Williams’ translanguaging emphasised the opportunity to change the language input and output, for example, learners read in one language and write in another (Garcia and Kleyn, 2016: 11). Williams (in Garcia and Kleyn, 2016: 11) had the idea of giving students the opportunity to alternate between languages in order to develop the school’s target language. Since then, ‘translanguaging’ has developed into an evidence-based teaching strategy, pedagogy and even theory - it developed far beyond expectations.
Heugh (2015: 283) criticises the term translanguaging for being part of ‘Northern’ vocabulary’ which could cause confusion within a South African context. Heugh (2015: 283) is of the opinion that code switching is a more suitable term. Garcia and Kleyn (2016: 14) on the other hand disagree with Heugh (2015: 283), arguing that the term ‘code switching’ is only one resource/strategy of translanguaging and that translanguaging goes far beyond only ‘code switching and mixing’. They also believe that code switching still views languages as separate, independent and autonomous, where translanguaging in contrast views language as one single linguistic repertoire, interrelated and attached (Garcia & Kleyn, 2016: 14).
Heugh (2015: 283) criticises the term translanguaging for being part of ‘Northern’ vocabulary’ which could cause confusion within a South African context. Heugh (2015: 283) is of the opinion that code switching is a more suitable term. Garcia and Kleyn (2016: 14) on the other hand disagree with Heugh (2015: 283), arguing that the term ‘code switching’ is only one resource/strategy of translanguaging and that translanguaging goes far beyond only ‘code switching and mixing’. They also believe that code switching still views languages as separate, independent and autonomous, where translanguaging in contrast views language as one single linguistic repertoire, interrelated and attached (Garcia & Kleyn, 2016: 14).
‘Translanguaging’ can be defined as the flexible use of bilingual or multilingual linguistic resources or repertoires to make meaning of complex worlds (Celic & Selzer, 2011: 1; Garcia, 2009: 140). It is a dynamic approach to bilingualism that centres on bilingual or multilingual practices and teaching strategies and not around languages themselves, this can be seen as a model that helps learners make sense of their multilingual environment (Garcia, 2009: 140). The idea of using any or all language(s) available to a learner to help them grasp the concept is accentuated during translanguaging.
‘Translanguaging’ can be defined as the flexible use of bilingual or multilingual linguistic resources or repertoires to make meaning of complex worlds (Celic & Selzer, 2011: 1; Garcia, 2009: 140). It is a dynamic approach to bilingualism that centres on bilingual or multilingual practices and teaching strategies and not around languages themselves, this can be seen as a model that helps learners make sense of their multilingual environment (Garcia, 2009: 140). The idea of using any or all language(s) available to a learner to help them grasp the concept is accentuated during translanguaging.
Translanguaging is framed by Cummin’s (1979: 124) interdependence theory that views languages as cognitively interdependent, which allows for the transfer of linguistic practices. ‘Cognitive interdependence’ as described by Cummins (2015: s.p.) refers to the Common Underlying Proficiency (CUP) between the languages of bi- or multilinguals who allow for transfer to occur (Garcia and Kleyn, 2016: 11). Neurolinguistic studies have confirmed that even though one language is being used, the other language(s) known by a person “remains active and can easily be accessed” (Cummins, 2015: s.p.; García & Wei, 2014: 13). The cognitive transfer is however dependent on the similarity of cognates of the languages involved. The typological distance between languages will affect the transfer that is possible for learners. For example English and Spanish's typological distance is closer than for example English and Zulu, which means that a Spanish speaker will be able to transfer more knowledge and skills than 'n Zulu learner.
Translanguaging is framed by Cummin’s (1979: 124) interdependence theory that views languages as cognitively interdependent, which allows for the transfer of linguistic practices. ‘Cognitive interdependence’ as described by Cummins (2015: s.p.) refers to the Common Underlying Proficiency (CUP) between the languages of bi- or multilinguals who allow for transfer to occur (Garcia and Kleyn, 2016: 11). Neurolinguistic studies have confirmed that even though one language is being used, the other language(s) known by a person “remains active and can easily be accessed” (Cummins, 2015: s.p.; García & Wei, 2014: 13). The cognitive transfer is however dependent on the similarity of cognates of the languages involved. The typological distance between languages will affect the transfer that is possible for learners. For example English and Spanish's typological distance is closer than for example English and Zulu, which means that a Spanish speaker will be able to transfer more knowledge and skills than 'n Zulu learner.
CUP knowledge and skills can for example be that the languages have a similar word order or linguistic structure, use the same alphabet, applies similar grammatical rules, share vocabulary, same sound-system, same handwriting skills etc. In other words, look out for the similarities to determine the typological distance of languages. Also consider if the languages form part of the same language families - What is the history of the languages involved?
CUP knowledge and skills can for example be that the languages have a similar word order or linguistic structure, use the same alphabet, applies similar grammatical rules, share vocabulary, same sound-system, same handwriting skills etc. In other words, look out for the similarities to determine the typological distance of languages. Also consider if the languages form part of the same language families - What is the history of the languages involved?
Translanguaging according to Makalela (2015: 16) has become a useful strategy to develop an additional language through the cross-transfer of skills between the linguistic repertoires that learners already possess. This means that a the languages involved should share some similarities for effective transfer to take place. However, even if the languages involved don't share a lot of similarities, some translanguage strategies can still help the learner form meaning.
Translanguaging according to Makalela (2015: 16) has become a useful strategy to develop an additional language through the cross-transfer of skills between the linguistic repertoires that learners already possess. This means that a the languages involved should share some similarities for effective transfer to take place. However, even if the languages involved don't share a lot of similarities, some translanguage strategies can still help the learner form meaning.
For example, some of the key translanguaging strategies that have been identified include grouping or pairing learners according to their mother tongue language to facilitate a discussion in a familiar language (Nyaga, 2013: 60). The learners will for example read a story or text in English and discuss it in their mother tongue afterwards. This mother tongue discussion can occur in reading partnerships or groups where all students speak the same mother tongue, or as a whole class if the teacher is able to speak the mother tongue of all the learners in the class. The reason for hosting homogenous language discussion groups is to link the English terms with the mother tongue, as suggested by Heugh (2002: 2) and Place (2016: 28). Having learners discuss, analyse and negotiate the English text using their mother tongue(s) also encourages them to have academic conversations in their mother tongue and therefore promotes multilingualism (Celic & Selzer, 2011: 126). Just remember that when mother tongue is used should be carefully and purposefully planned for - It should not be used at all times.
For example, some of the key translanguaging strategies that have been identified include grouping or pairing learners according to their mother tongue language to facilitate a discussion in a familiar language (Nyaga, 2013: 60). The learners will for example read a story or text in English and discuss it in their mother tongue afterwards. This mother tongue discussion can occur in reading partnerships or groups where all students speak the same mother tongue, or as a whole class if the teacher is able to speak the mother tongue of all the learners in the class. The reason for hosting homogenous language discussion groups is to link the English terms with the mother tongue, as suggested by Heugh (2002: 2) and Place (2016: 28). Having learners discuss, analyse and negotiate the English text using their mother tongue(s) also encourages them to have academic conversations in their mother tongue and therefore promotes multilingualism (Celic & Selzer, 2011: 126). Just remember that when mother tongue is used should be carefully and purposefully planned for - It should not be used at all times.
According to Setati et al. (2002: 134), a key finding in research is that learners’ written work may “conceal misconceptions, errors and a lack of understanding”. Setati et al. (2002: 134) believe that these misconceptions are more likely to be revealed during classroom discussion that takes place in the learners’ mother tongue. Setati et al. (2002: 134) caries on by explaining that classroom discussions within their mother tongue can be seen as ‘exploratory talk’ which is a great opportunity for learners to explore ideas and concepts in a comfortable environment.
According to Setati et al. (2002: 134), a key finding in research is that learners’ written work may “conceal misconceptions, errors and a lack of understanding”. Setati et al. (2002: 134) believe that these misconceptions are more likely to be revealed during classroom discussion that takes place in the learners’ mother tongue. Setati et al. (2002: 134) caries on by explaining that classroom discussions within their mother tongue can be seen as ‘exploratory talk’ which is a great opportunity for learners to explore ideas and concepts in a comfortable environment.
According to Garcia, Johnson and Seltzer’s (2017:14) using a translanguaging approach to assist learners in developing their bilingual identities and socio-emotional development, social justice is also promoted. Social justice is promoted by developing a robust multilingual ecology that helps all learners and their parents feel that their languages are welcome and respected within the classroom (Garcia, Johnson and Seltzer, 2017: 63).
According to Garcia, Johnson and Seltzer’s (2017:14) using a translanguaging approach to assist learners in developing their bilingual identities and socio-emotional development, social justice is also promoted. Social justice is promoted by developing a robust multilingual ecology that helps all learners and their parents feel that their languages are welcome and respected within the classroom (Garcia, Johnson and Seltzer, 2017: 63).
Below is a presentation on why and how to teach a second language using translanguaging teaching strategies.
Below is a presentation on why and how to teach a second language using translanguaging teaching strategies.
Below is a video where Prof Ofelia Garcia explains what Translanguaging is all about.
Below is a video where Prof Ofelia Garcia explains what Translanguaging is all about.
Below is a Huffington Post article by Joyce West about using Translanguaging to avoid English-Language Imperialism.
Below is a Huffington Post article by Joyce West about using Translanguaging to avoid English-Language Imperialism.
Below is an introductory video on Translanguaging by CUNY-NYSIEB
Below is an introductory video on Translanguaging by CUNY-NYSIEB
Below you can find Translanguaging guides developed by CUNY-NYSIEB
Below you can find Translanguaging guides developed by CUNY-NYSIEB
Below is an Afrovoice Article by Joyce West
Below is an Afrovoice Article by Joyce West
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