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What is reading?
What is reading?
Reading is not one single ability or skill. Reading consists of various skills such as decoding, word recognition, reading fluency, and reading comprehension. These skills also branch out into other skills. For example, decoding requires letter-sound recognition, phonological and phonemic awareness, and various perceptual skills such as visual and auditory memory, discrimination and closure, etc.
Reading is not one single ability or skill. Reading consists of various skills such as decoding, word recognition, reading fluency, and reading comprehension. These skills also branch out into other skills. For example, decoding requires letter-sound recognition, phonological and phonemic awareness, and various perceptual skills such as visual and auditory memory, discrimination and closure, etc.
It is important that teachers take note of all the skills involved in reading as these skills are interwoven, interdependent and should therefore be developed individually and explicitly (direct instruction) as well as holistically and implicitly (indirectly through reading). There are also skills such as intonation, phrasing, reading speed and reading stamina that affect learners' reading ability and should therefore also be considered when reading instruction takes place.
It is important that teachers take note of all the skills involved in reading as these skills are interwoven, interdependent and should therefore be developed individually and explicitly (direct instruction) as well as holistically and implicitly (indirectly through reading). There are also skills such as intonation, phrasing, reading speed and reading stamina that affect learners' reading ability and should therefore also be considered when reading instruction takes place.
I like to explain the different skills involved in reading by using a bottom-up triangle...
I like to explain the different skills involved in reading by using a bottom-up triangle...
Reading as a triangle
Reading as a triangle
From the above triangle it is evident that reading skills consist of “smaller” skills such as being able to recognise, identify, decode, and blend phonics (sounds and letters). The teaching of phonics requires explicit, systematic and sequential instruction. Blending and segmenting of different types of syllables help learners become skillful readers and spellers/writers. The use of phonics programmes and decodable books are extremely helpful.
From the above triangle it is evident that reading skills consist of “smaller” skills such as being able to recognise, identify, decode, and blend phonics (sounds and letters). The teaching of phonics requires explicit, systematic and sequential instruction. Blending and segmenting of different types of syllables help learners become skillful readers and spellers/writers. The use of phonics programmes and decodable books are extremely helpful.
Reading also entails word recognition, which requires a learner to be able to decode and analyse words. When the ability to decode and recognise words becomes automatic (i.e. automaticity develops), then a learner will be able to read fluently. This is where high frequency and low frequency words come in.
Reading also entails word recognition, which requires a learner to be able to decode and analyse words. When the ability to decode and recognise words becomes automatic (i.e. automaticity develops), then a learner will be able to read fluently. This is where high frequency and low frequency words come in.
High frequency words refer to words that learners are frequently/often exposed to, hence the term “high frequency”. High frequency words still require decoding skills, but is usually easier to read than low frequency words.
High frequency words refer to words that learners are frequently/often exposed to, hence the term “high frequency”. High frequency words still require decoding skills, but is usually easier to read than low frequency words.
Low frequency words refer to words that learners are not exposed to frequently and might be unknown to them. Low frequency words are much harder for learners to read. Then there are sight words, which are similar to high frequency words but don’t require learners to decode them. Sight words usually can’t be decoded such as “the”, “beautiful” and “we”. Sight words should be recognised instantly by learners.
Low frequency words refer to words that learners are not exposed to frequently and might be unknown to them. Low frequency words are much harder for learners to read. Then there are sight words, which are similar to high frequency words but don’t require learners to decode them. Sight words usually can’t be decoded such as “the”, “beautiful” and “we”. Sight words should be recognised instantly by learners.
Therefore, Reading fluency requires learners to have knowledge of phonics, word recognition skills, a well-developed vocabulary, reading speed and reading stamina.
Therefore, Reading fluency requires learners to have knowledge of phonics, word recognition skills, a well-developed vocabulary, reading speed and reading stamina.
Finally, if a learner can read fluently, they will be able to read for meaning. Reading comprehension, therefore, requires all of the reading skills depicted on the pyramid. However, reading comprehension strategies and approaches should still be taught to learners, such as summarising a text, predicting, comparing, contrasting, reflecting and answering high and low order questions.
Finally, if a learner can read fluently, they will be able to read for meaning. Reading comprehension, therefore, requires all of the reading skills depicted on the pyramid. However, reading comprehension strategies and approaches should still be taught to learners, such as summarising a text, predicting, comparing, contrasting, reflecting and answering high and low order questions.
Can you see why reading can be depicted as a pyramid?
Can you see why reading can be depicted as a pyramid?
Reading skills develops sequentially and systematically where the “smaller” skills (i.e. phonics) lay the foundation.
Reading skills develops sequentially and systematically where the “smaller” skills (i.e. phonics) lay the foundation.
Reading can also be viewed as a rope...
Reading can also be viewed as a rope...
Reading as a rope
Reading as a rope
Sources: Scarborough (2001).
The above figure depicting reading as a rope makes it clear that the different skills that are involved are interwoven and that one skill is not more important than the other. Reading should therefore also be viewed holistically.
The above figure depicting reading as a rope makes it clear that the different skills that are involved are interwoven and that one skill is not more important than the other. Reading should therefore also be viewed holistically.
There is also a simple view of reading that also explain how learners develop reading comprehension skills. See the below depiction of the simple view of reading.
There is also a simple view of reading that also explain how learners develop reading comprehension skills. See the below depiction of the simple view of reading.
When learners use the different reading skills they can also draw information from different sources. When reading a text, there are various cues/sources that can help them read the text.
When learners use the different reading skills they can also draw information from different sources. When reading a text, there are various cues/sources that can help them read the text.
In the following section I discuss the different sources of information/cues that learners use when reading.
In the following section I discuss the different sources of information/cues that learners use when reading.
Reading information/cues
Reading information/cues
Great websites for more information:
When reading, you apply different skills, but the brain also uses different information/cues to help you understand or decode the text that is being read.
When reading, you apply different skills, but the brain also uses different information/cues to help you understand or decode the text that is being read.
The main areas of the brain involved with reading is the:
The main areas of the brain involved with reading is the:
- Frontal lobe
- Temportal lobe
- Angular Gyrus
This video is a great simplification/explanation of the reading brain...
This video is a great simplification/explanation of the reading brain...
According to Rumelhart's Interactive theory of reading and Marie Clay's Literacy Processing Theory, reading involves many working systems in the brain that helps the reader make decisions about what a text says...
According to Rumelhart's Interactive theory of reading and Marie Clay's Literacy Processing Theory, reading involves many working systems in the brain that helps the reader make decisions about what a text says...
Reading is viewed as both a perceptual and cognitive working system that entails the processing of visual, meaning-making and structure information/cues.
Reading is viewed as both a perceptual and cognitive working system that entails the processing of visual, meaning-making and structure information/cues.
Visual
Visual
The visual cue can also be described as graphophonic information . In other words, the graphic analysis of phonics within a word or sentence.
Look at the above example of a visual miscue. The learner read poor instead of pool because the words visually look similar.
Look at the above example of a visual miscue. The learner read poor instead of pool because the words visually look similar.
After reading a word/sentence, the learner should ask:
"What does the sound/word look like?"
Meaning
Meaning
The meaning cue can also be described as semantic information. In other words, the analysis of word meanings within a sentence or phrase.
Look at the above example of a meaning miscue. The learner read river instead of water. Even though the learner substituted river for water, the sentence's meaning stays the same.
Look at the above example of a meaning miscue. The learner read river instead of water. Even though the learner substituted river for water, the sentence's meaning stays the same.
After reading a word/sentence the learner should ask:
"Does it make sense?"
Structure
Structure
The structure cue can also be described as syntactic information. In other words, the analysis of the arrangement/order of words in a sentence - the structure of a sentence.
Look at the above example of a structure miscue. The learner did not read "the" in the sentence which affects the sentence construction.
Look at the above example of a structure miscue. The learner did not read "the" in the sentence which affects the sentence construction.
After reading the sentence the learner should ask:
"Does it sound right?"
Other reading cues
Other reading cues
There are also other cues available within text that can also affect a learner's ability to read for meaning. These cues are explained below.
There are also other cues available within text that can also affect a learner's ability to read for meaning. These cues are explained below.
Picture
Picture
Illustrations help learners understand what they are reading.
Illustrations help learners understand what they are reading.
Contextual
Contextual
Contextual clues are available in a sentence that helps a learner decode/read. E.g. river and water.
Contextual clues are available in a sentence that helps a learner decode/read. E.g. river and water.
Writing style
Writing style
Language/Grammatical rules can guide learners. For example, punctuation, spaces, direction of text etc. can assist learners to understand.
Language/Grammatical rules can guide learners. For example, punctuation, spaces, direction of text etc. can assist learners to understand.
All of these cues should be taken into account when determining the readibility of text
All of these cues should be taken into account when determining the readibility of text
Reading models/theories/approaches
Reading models/theories/approaches
There are three main models/approaches to reading that is informed by two main theories, Behaviorism and Psycholinguistics. These approaches are:
There are three main models/approaches to reading that is informed by two main theories, Behaviorism and Psycholinguistics. These approaches are:
- Bottom-up (code-emphasis model)
- Top-down approach (Meaning model)
- Balanced approach (interactive model)
Bottom-up approach
Bottom-up approach
This approach is also known as the code-emphasis model.
This approach is also known as the code-emphasis model.
This approach is guided by behaviorism as theory.
This approach is guided by behaviorism as theory.
Teaching reading from a bottom-up approach entails:
Teaching reading from a bottom-up approach entails:
- A teacher-centered approach and a lot of modelling
- Teaching the different reading skills individually
- Focussing on phonics instruction and sight words
- Phonics instruction will involve teaching sounds using stories, songs and associations such as b for ball (always use same picture of a ball)
- Letters, sounds and sight words will be taught through drilling exercises and the teacher will use a lot of repetition during lessons
- Using a lot of decoding (“word attack”) strategies
- Using reading aloud strategies often
- Using a text driven approach
- Texts are short, repetitive and include a lot of sight words
- Recognition and identifying sounds and letters in text is important
- Link between reading and writing is clear.
- Good spelling skills owing to focus on decoding
- The use of graded readers
Top-down approach
Top-down approach
This approach is also known as the meaning-emphasis model.
This approach is also known as the meaning-emphasis model.
This approach is guided by the psycholinguistic view of reading.
This approach is guided by the psycholinguistic view of reading.
Teaching reading from a top-down approach entails:
Teaching reading from a top-down approach entails:
- A learner-centered approach and a lot of interaction
- Teaching reading holistically as a global skill
- Focussing on meaning/comprehension of text
- Whole-language approach
- Learners form meaning by using their own background knowledge and language abilities
- Expose learners to a wide variety of text
- Expose learners to new and low frequency vocabulary
- Reading lessons should be fun - Focus on developing a love for reading
- Allow for silent/independent reading opportunities
- Using a concept-driven approach
- Allow learners choices when choosing their reading text
- Emphasise reading comprehension strategies such as prediction, summarising, sequencing, critical thinking, problem-solving and reflecting on text
- Ask a variety of questions (higher and lower order questions, opinion-based questions, argumentation-based questions etc.)
Balanced approach
Balanced approach
Most researchers argue that a balanced approach is best as it minimises the negative effects of the Bottom-up and Top-down approaches and is a way to combine the best of the two approaches.
Most researchers argue that a balanced approach is best as it minimises the negative effects of the Bottom-up and Top-down approaches and is a way to combine the best of the two approaches.
A balanced approach is learner-centered, knowledge-, text- as well as concept-based. The approach requires interactive reading instruction that focuses on developing learners decoding skills as well as the comprehensions strategies. Learners are taught explicitly and implicitly depending on the learners' needs and the type/readability of the text.
A balanced approach is learner-centered, knowledge-, text- as well as concept-based. The approach requires interactive reading instruction that focuses on developing learners decoding skills as well as the comprehensions strategies. Learners are taught explicitly and implicitly depending on the learners' needs and the type/readability of the text.
The following video is a must watch, where Prof Stanislas explains how the brain learns to read. Watching this video will help you understand all of the different approaches to reading that we have discussed up to now.
The following video is a must watch, where Prof Stanislas explains how the brain learns to read. Watching this video will help you understand all of the different approaches to reading that we have discussed up to now.
How the Brain Learns to Read -
How the Brain Learns to Read -
Prof. Stanislas Dehaene
Prof. Stanislas Dehaene
Reading challenges or problems
Reading challenges or problems
Learners might experience various challenges when learning how to read. Some of the challenges learners experience can be divided into external and internal challenges.
Learners might experience various challenges when learning how to read. Some of the challenges learners experience can be divided into external and internal challenges.
External challenges
External challenges
External challenges that learners experience refer to challenges that are hard to control as they are usually circumstantial and environmental.
External challenges that learners experience refer to challenges that are hard to control as they are usually circumstantial and environmental.
External challenges could include:
External challenges could include:
- Dysfunctional schools
- Poor or inadequate teaching within the classroom,
- Overcrowded classrooms with large teacher-learner ratios,
- Problematic home conditions
- Unavailable parents
- The distance of the school could be a problem
- A lack of inclusive education within schools
- A lack of quality resources
- Disadvantage in terms of access to material, text and other resources
- Learners with insufficient exposure to reading instruction, intervention, programmes or books
- Few opportunities to read for pleasure
- Reading instruction is often unbalanced and follow rote-learning approaches or only traditional bottom-up approaches which leads to learners being stuck a basic reading levels and not developing Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP)
- Reading instruction of teachers are not adapted appropriately for the linguistically diverse backgrounds of the learners
- ill-prepared teachers
Internal challenges
Internal challenges
Internal challenges refer to challenges learners experience internally. These challenges are related to their own abilities and skills that they have or have not developed. Internal challenges can also be related to psychological, cognitive or medical barriers that learners might be experiencing that hinders their development/learning. In many cases these barriers do not affect the learner’s general intelligence. They usually involve some neurological difficulty (the way the brain is ‘wired’) that affects the efficient processing of information and integration of the different senses and perceptual skills (Zenex, 2018). In simpler terms, the way the nerves are connected to one another in the body, can make it difficult for the learner’s brain to deal with all the information they are receiving through their senses (eyes, ears, nose, and senses of touch and taste) (Zenex, 2018).
Internal challenges refer to challenges learners experience internally. These challenges are related to their own abilities and skills that they have or have not developed. Internal challenges can also be related to psychological, cognitive or medical barriers that learners might be experiencing that hinders their development/learning. In many cases these barriers do not affect the learner’s general intelligence. They usually involve some neurological difficulty (the way the brain is ‘wired’) that affects the efficient processing of information and integration of the different senses and perceptual skills (Zenex, 2018). In simpler terms, the way the nerves are connected to one another in the body, can make it difficult for the learner’s brain to deal with all the information they are receiving through their senses (eyes, ears, nose, and senses of touch and taste) (Zenex, 2018).
Internal reading challenges could include:
Internal reading challenges could include:
- Sensory issues
- Perceptual development issues (i.e. auditory and visual closure problems; auditory and visual memory)
- Perceptual intergration problems
- Laterality confusion or problems with midline crossing
- Problems with sight or eye movement issues (i.e. lose space, regression, skipping lines etc.)
- Lack of concentration (Possibly due to ADHD)
- Limited vocabulary
- Poor motivation
- Home Language/Mother tongue ignored (subtractive bilingualism)
- Miscomprehension owing to cultural difference
- Low self-esteem, -confidence or poor self-concept
- Dyslexia
- Perseveration (Possibly due to Autism)
- Regression/Repetition
- Motor/Body/Posture problems due to low muscle tone and lacking gross motor development
Reading mistakes
Reading mistakes
Learners' challenges can sometimes be identified by investigating and analysing the reading mistakes they make. Here is a list of some of the most common reading mistakes learners make:
Learners' challenges can sometimes be identified by investigating and analysing the reading mistakes they make. Here is a list of some of the most common reading mistakes learners make:
- Substitution of letters and words
- Omissions of letters
- Insertions and additions
- Reversals of letters and words
- Decoding problems
- Sounding words out
- Repetition of letters, words or sentences
- Pronunciation, phrasing and intonation mistakes
- Ignore punctuation
When assessing reading here is a description of the reading mistakes you should look out for. Also see the codes that you can use when annotating a learners' reading mistakes.
When assessing reading here is a description of the reading mistakes you should look out for. Also see the codes that you can use when annotating a learners' reading mistakes.
Bibliography
Bibliography
Bester, M. (2019). Chapter 5: Reading and Viewing. In: I, Joubert. (Eds.). Literacy in the Foundation Phase (3rd Ed.), (pp. 106-156). Pretoria: Van Schaiks.
Blunden-Greeff, L. (2014). Teaching reading and writing to EFAL learners. In: Phatudi, N. Introducing English as First Additional Language in the Early Years. (pp.140- 171).Cape Town: Pearsons.
Coltman, G. & Place, J. (2013). Chapter 5: Teaching reading in English as a First Additional Language. In: A. Hugo & E. Lenyai. Teaching English as a First Additional Language in the Foundation Phase. (pp. 99-113). Cape Town: Juta and Company.
Doyle, M.A. (2013). Chapter 26: Marie M. Clays' Theoretical Perspective: A Literacy Processing Theory. In: Donna E. Alvermann, Norman J. Unrau & Robert B. Ruddell. Theoretical Models of Reading (6th ed.), (pp.636-656). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
McCardle, P. , Scarborough, H.S. & Catts, H.W. (2001). ‘Predicting, Explaining and Preventing Children’s Reading Difficulties’, Learning Disabilities Research & Practice 16:4.
Phatudi, N. (2019). Chapter 10: Teaching English as a First Additional Language in Grades 1-3. In: Joubert, I. Literacy in the Foundation Phase (3rd Ed.), (pp. 293-312). Pretoria: Van Schaiks.
Rumelhart, D.E. (1994). Toward an interactive model of reading. In R.B. Ruddell, M.R. Ruddell, & H. Singer (Eds.), Theoretical models and processes of reading (4th ed.), pp. 864–894). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Rathvon, N. (2004). Early Reading Assessment: A practitioner's handbook. New York: The Guilford Press.
Scarborough, H. (2001). Connecting early language and literacy to later reading (dis)abilities. Evidence, theory, and practice. In S.B Neuman & D.K. Dickinson (Eds.). Handbook of Early Literacy. (pp. 97-110). NY: Guilford Press.
Zenex. (2018). Struggling readers and difficulties they face. [Online]. https://www.zenexfoundation.org.za/the-expert-reading-teacher#e-learners-with-reading-difficulties
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