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Assessing reading can take place in different ways using different approaches, methods, techniques, etc. Reading assessment can be:
Assessing reading can take place in different ways using different approaches, methods, techniques, etc. Reading assessment can be:
- Formal (summative)
- Informal (formative)
- Norm-referenced (e.g. Annual National Assessment; PIRLS, SACMEQ; EGRA etc.)
- Criterion-based
- Diagnostic
However, when assessing reading in the early years it is important that your assessment purpose and criteria are clear. Ask yourself the following questions:
However, when assessing reading in the early years it is important that your assessment purpose and criteria are clear. Ask yourself the following questions:
- What do you want to assess?
- Why am I assessing this?
- What are my criteria to determine a learners' reading success/improvement?
- How will you track and monitor their reading progress?
Purpose of reading assessment
Purpose of reading assessment
When assessing reading, you will assess various reading aspects such as learners' phonological awareness, decoding skills (phonics), reading fluency, word recognition and reading comprehension skills etc.
When assessing reading, you will assess various reading aspects such as learners' phonological awareness, decoding skills (phonics), reading fluency, word recognition and reading comprehension skills etc.
Assessing reading behaviour can take place via read aloud strategies (oral reading) or through silent reading techniques (written assessment such as worksheets & tests etc.).
Assessing reading behaviour can take place via read aloud strategies (oral reading) or through silent reading techniques (written assessment such as worksheets & tests etc.).
Both have pro's and cons.
Both have pro's and cons.
Reading aloud (oral reading) strategies can be used for teaching or assessment purposes. During reading aloud the focus will be on observing learners' reading behaviour and identifying and analysing their reading errors/miscues.
Reading aloud (oral reading) strategies can be used for teaching or assessment purposes. During reading aloud the focus will be on observing learners' reading behaviour and identifying and analysing their reading errors/miscues.
During a read aloud lesson, learners will read aloud as a class, groups or in pairs or they follow the text as the teacher allows groups or individual learners to take turns. Although reading aloud help learners develop decoding skills and to certain extent fluency owing to automaticity, the problem with reading aloud lessons are the lack of focus on meaning/comprehension. Another disadvantage of reading aloud lessons is learners' lack of understanding the purpose of reading, they just read because the teacher told them to. If reading aloud is implemented ineffectively it can be a waste of teaching and learning time.
During a read aloud lesson, learners will read aloud as a class, groups or in pairs or they follow the text as the teacher allows groups or individual learners to take turns. Although reading aloud help learners develop decoding skills and to certain extent fluency owing to automaticity, the problem with reading aloud lessons are the lack of focus on meaning/comprehension. Another disadvantage of reading aloud lessons is learners' lack of understanding the purpose of reading, they just read because the teacher told them to. If reading aloud is implemented ineffectively it can be a waste of teaching and learning time.
In order to ensure that learners are comprehending when reading aloud, ask learners to repeat the story or sections of the story afterwards. You should also ask a variety of low and high order questions about what they are reading, before, during and after reading the text. Learners should learn how to sequence the events in the text, predict what will happen next, make connections and annotate while reading the story/text. Reading aloud when done effectively can be great for oral language development and it also promotes listening and speaking skills.
In order to ensure that learners are comprehending when reading aloud, ask learners to repeat the story or sections of the story afterwards. You should also ask a variety of low and high order questions about what they are reading, before, during and after reading the text. Learners should learn how to sequence the events in the text, predict what will happen next, make connections and annotate while reading the story/text. Reading aloud when done effectively can be great for oral language development and it also promotes listening and speaking skills.
When assessing reading aloud, the following warrant attention:
When assessing reading aloud, the following warrant attention:
• Reading accuracy
• Reading accuracy
• Fluency
• Fluency
• Reading speed
• Reading speed
• Clear and pure articulation
• Clear and pure articulation
• Phrasing & Intonation (stressing of words and sentences)
• Phrasing & Intonation (stressing of words and sentences)
• Interpretation, facial expression, punctuation & tone of voice
• Interpretation, facial expression, punctuation & tone of voice
The above listed skills can/should be included when designing your own checklist or rubric when assessing reading aloud. Learners should also be told about these skills and why they are important when reading aloud.
The above listed skills can/should be included when designing your own checklist or rubric when assessing reading aloud. Learners should also be told about these skills and why they are important when reading aloud.
Instead of assessing these skills using a rubric, consider using the Running Records assessment tool where you record the reading behaviour. You can also use other reading aloud assessment tools such as the EGRA and DIBELS reading aloud fluency instrument. See these assessment tools below.
Instead of assessing these skills using a rubric, consider using the Running Records assessment tool where you record the reading behaviour. You can also use other reading aloud assessment tools such as the EGRA and DIBELS reading aloud fluency instrument. See these assessment tools below.
Phonics/Letter-sound assessment
Phonics/Letter-sound assessment
Here are letter-sound freebies that can also be downloaded.
Here are letter-sound freebies that can also be downloaded.
For learners to be able to know and identify the letters and sounds of the alphabet, is a basic, but very important reading skill. It requires phonological and phonemic awareness that should start to develop before formal schooling (Gr.1). Learners should start by identifying the letters of their own name and the names of their friends.
For learners to be able to know and identify the letters and sounds of the alphabet, is a basic, but very important reading skill. It requires phonological and phonemic awareness that should start to develop before formal schooling (Gr.1). Learners should start by identifying the letters of their own name and the names of their friends.
To assess learners' letter name and letter sound knowledge/skill, there are various standardised test that you can use. There is a lot of debate about if teachers should assess learners "letter name" knowledge or "letter sound" knowledge. In other words, when pointing to a letter, should the teacher ask:
To assess learners' letter name and letter sound knowledge/skill, there are various standardised test that you can use. There is a lot of debate about if teachers should assess learners "letter name" knowledge or "letter sound" knowledge. In other words, when pointing to a letter, should the teacher ask:
"what sound does this letter make?" or "what is the name of this letter?"
"what sound does this letter make?" or "what is the name of this letter?"
Research has shown that letter-sound knowledge provides more valuable information to teachers about a learners' reading level where learners' "letter name" knowledge provides more information for predicting future academic success. However, Rathvon (2004) argues that "letter-sound fluency test should be a better predictor of reading ability", teachers should therefore rather focus on assessing learners' letter-sound knowledge.
Research has shown that letter-sound knowledge provides more valuable information to teachers about a learners' reading level where learners' "letter name" knowledge provides more information for predicting future academic success. However, Rathvon (2004) argues that "letter-sound fluency test should be a better predictor of reading ability", teachers should therefore rather focus on assessing learners' letter-sound knowledge.
When assessing learners' letter-sound knowledge/skills, you have to develop your assessment tool by keeping the frequency of the letter in the language in mind as it will affect the difficulty of your test.
When assessing learners' letter-sound knowledge/skills, you have to develop your assessment tool by keeping the frequency of the letter in the language in mind as it will affect the difficulty of your test.
In other words, the number of times a letter is repeated in your test should be based on the frequency with which the letter occurs in the language in question.
In other words, the number of times a letter is repeated in your test should be based on the frequency with which the letter occurs in the language in question.
Here is the letter frequency table for English.
Here is the letter frequency table for English.
When analysing learners' knowledge use three data points to calculate the total Correct Letter Sounds and diphthongs/digraphs Per Minute (CLSPM):
When analysing learners' knowledge use three data points to calculate the total Correct Letter Sounds and diphthongs/digraphs Per Minute (CLSPM):
clspm = (Total letter sounds identified – Total incorrect) /
clspm = (Total letter sounds identified – Total incorrect) /
[(60 – Time remaining on device) / 60]
[(60 – Time remaining on device) / 60]
An example of a letter-name/sound test is the Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS) Letter Naming Fluency (LNF) tests. The Dibels Letter Naming Fluency (LNF) test is a short (one minute) fluency measure that can be used for universal screening, benchmark assessment, and progress monitoring. Dibels has various fluency measures, but in this case we are referring to their LNF test.
An example of a letter-name/sound test is the Dynamic Indicators of Basic Early Literacy Skills (DIBELS) Letter Naming Fluency (LNF) tests. The Dibels Letter Naming Fluency (LNF) test is a short (one minute) fluency measure that can be used for universal screening, benchmark assessment, and progress monitoring. Dibels has various fluency measures, but in this case we are referring to their LNF test.
The DIBELS LNF assessment material can be downloaded here: https://dibels.uoregon.edu/assessment/index/material/
The DIBELS LNF assessment material can be downloaded here: https://dibels.uoregon.edu/assessment/index/material/
When doing a LNF test, you can following the following steps:
When doing a LNF test, you can following the following steps:
DIBELS Letter Name/Sound Fluency (LNF) steps to follow:
DIBELS Letter Name/Sound Fluency (LNF) steps to follow:
7 Steps:
7 Steps:
1. Place the learner’s copy of the test in front of the learner.
1. Place the learner’s copy of the test in front of the learner.
2. Place the examiner’s test on a clipboard and position it so that the learner cannot see what you record.
2. Place the examiner’s test on a clipboard and position it so that the learner cannot see what you record.
3. Say these specific directions to the learner:
3. Say these specific directions to the learner:
Here are some letters (point). Tell me the names of as many letters as you can. When I say “begin”, start here (point to first letter), and go across the page (point). Point to each letter and tell me the name of that letter. If you come to a letter you don’t know I’ll tell it to you. Put your finger on the first letter. Ready, begin.
Here are some letters (point). Tell me the names of as many letters as you can. When I say “begin”, start here (point to first letter), and go across the page (point). Point to each letter and tell me the name of that letter. If you come to a letter you don’t know I’ll tell it to you. Put your finger on the first letter. Ready, begin.
4. Start your stop watch.
4. Start your stop watch.
5. Follow along on the examiner test. Put a slash (/) through letters named incorrectly.
5. Follow along on the examiner test. Put a slash (/) through letters named incorrectly.
6. If the learner provides the letter sound rather than the letter name, say, “Remember to tell me the letter name, not the sound it makes.” This prompt may be provided once during the administration. If the student continues providing letter sounds, mark each letter as incorrect and indicate what the student did at the bottom of the page. Ignore instruction number 6 since we do not teach learners the letter name but rather the sounds. Learners may give you the letter name or sound.
6. If the learner provides the letter sound rather than the letter name, say, “Remember to tell me the letter name, not the sound it makes.” This prompt may be provided once during the administration. If the student continues providing letter sounds, mark each letter as incorrect and indicate what the student did at the bottom of the page. Ignore instruction number 6 since we do not teach learners the letter name but rather the sounds. Learners may give you the letter name or sound.
7. At the end of 1 minute, place a bracket ( ] ) after the last letter named and say, “Stop.”
7. At the end of 1 minute, place a bracket ( ] ) after the last letter named and say, “Stop.”
DIBELS Letter Name/Sound Fluency scoring Procedure
DIBELS Letter Name/Sound Fluency scoring Procedure
10 Procedures:
10 Procedures:
1. Discontinue Rule. If the learner does not get any correct letter names within the first 10 letters (1 row), discontinue the task and record a score of 0.
1. Discontinue Rule. If the learner does not get any correct letter names within the first 10 letters (1 row), discontinue the task and record a score of 0.
2. Three second rule. If the learner hesitates for 3 seconds on a letter, score the letter incorrect, provide the correct letter, point to the next letter, and say “What letter?” This prompt may be repeated.
2. Three second rule. If the learner hesitates for 3 seconds on a letter, score the letter incorrect, provide the correct letter, point to the next letter, and say “What letter?” This prompt may be repeated.
3. Self correct. If a learner makes an error and corrects him or herself within 3 seconds, write “SC” above the letter and do not count it as an error.
3. Self correct. If a learner makes an error and corrects him or herself within 3 seconds, write “SC” above the letter and do not count it as an error.
4. Incorrect letter. A letter is incorrect if the learner substitutes a different letter for the stimulus letter (e.g., “B” for “D”).
4. Incorrect letter. A letter is incorrect if the learner substitutes a different letter for the stimulus letter (e.g., “B” for “D”).
5. Omissions. A letter is incorrect if the student omits the letter.
5. Omissions. A letter is incorrect if the student omits the letter.
6. Similar shaped font. For some fonts, including times, the upper case letter “i,” and the lower case letter “L” are difficult or impossible to distinguish. A response of either “i” or “L” is scored as correct. For example, if the letters are “I (upper case i) D s l (lower case L)” and the learner names them both L, score as correct. (Remember smaller case in South Africa refers to the sound and the capital letter refers to the name - You might have to remind learners of this before the test otherwise ignore scoring instruction 6).
6. Similar shaped font. For some fonts, including times, the upper case letter “i,” and the lower case letter “L” are difficult or impossible to distinguish. A response of either “i” or “L” is scored as correct. For example, if the letters are “I (upper case i) D s l (lower case L)” and the learner names them both L, score as correct. (Remember smaller case in South Africa refers to the sound and the capital letter refers to the name - You might have to remind learners of this before the test otherwise ignore scoring instruction 6).
7. Accent, articulation and dialect. The learner is not penalised for imperfect pronunciation due to accent, dialect, articulation, or second language interference. For example, if the student consistently says /th/ for /s/ and pronounces “thee” for “see” when naming the letter “C”, he/she should be given credit for naming letter correctly. This is a professional judgment and should be based on the learner’s responses and any prior knowledge of his/her speech patterns.
7. Accent, articulation and dialect. The learner is not penalised for imperfect pronunciation due to accent, dialect, articulation, or second language interference. For example, if the student consistently says /th/ for /s/ and pronounces “thee” for “see” when naming the letter “C”, he/she should be given credit for naming letter correctly. This is a professional judgment and should be based on the learner’s responses and any prior knowledge of his/her speech patterns.
8. Skips row. If a learner skips an entire row, draw a line through the row and do not count the row in scoring.
8. Skips row. If a learner skips an entire row, draw a line through the row and do not count the row in scoring.
9. For letters that can represent more than one sound, several answers will be acceptable.
9. For letters that can represent more than one sound, several answers will be acceptable.
10. Be careful of letters such as Q, Z, X an C that can make different sounds. Depending on the phonics programme that was used, use your own discretion when scoring these sounds.
10. Be careful of letters such as Q, Z, X an C that can make different sounds. Depending on the phonics programme that was used, use your own discretion when scoring these sounds.
DIBELS Benchmarking of the Letter Name/Sound Fluency (LNF)
DIBELS Benchmarking of the Letter Name/Sound Fluency (LNF)
More information...
More information...
When assessing, standardisation and benchmarking help teachers discover what the best performances of learners are. Standards and benchmarks also represent general expectations about learning objectives/goals that learners should be able to meet/do/know at a specific time/grade/age.
When assessing, standardisation and benchmarking help teachers discover what the best performances of learners are. Standards and benchmarks also represent general expectations about learning objectives/goals that learners should be able to meet/do/know at a specific time/grade/age.
Benchmarking also assists in helping teachers identify learners who are at risk and the opportunities that exist for improvement. Look at for example the Blue, Green coloured rows which indicate learners who require core support and are therefore considered "at risk" in comparison to other learners in their age-group.
Benchmarking also assists in helping teachers identify learners who are at risk and the opportunities that exist for improvement. Look at for example the Blue, Green coloured rows which indicate learners who require core support and are therefore considered "at risk" in comparison to other learners in their age-group.
DIBELS LNF benchmarks
DIBELS LNF benchmarks
Early Grade Reading Assessment (EGRA & EGRS)
Early Grade Reading Assessment (EGRA & EGRS)
Another already developed test that can be used to assess learners' letter-sound knowledge is the EGRA test that used worldwide. According to the EGRA tests that have already been conducted in South Africa, the average letter-sound identification score was far below the benchmark scores of the DIBELS. The Early Grade Ready Study (EGRS) report where the EGRA tool was used showed an average of 39.5 letters correctly identified within a minute. Here is an extract from the EGRS report:
Another already developed test that can be used to assess learners' letter-sound knowledge is the EGRA test that used worldwide. According to the EGRA tests that have already been conducted in South Africa, the average letter-sound identification score was far below the benchmark scores of the DIBELS. The Early Grade Ready Study (EGRS) report where the EGRA tool was used showed an average of 39.5 letters correctly identified within a minute. Here is an extract from the EGRS report:
From the above figure it is evident that improvement did take place since the Baseline assessment took place in Grade 1. However, after 2 years of intervention, the average letter recognition is still below 40 and the highest between 51 and 110 in Grade 3. Here is an extract from the report about the above figure:
From the above figure it is evident that improvement did take place since the Baseline assessment took place in Grade 1. However, after 2 years of intervention, the average letter recognition is still below 40 and the highest between 51 and 110 in Grade 3. Here is an extract from the report about the above figure:
"At baseline, 42% of children had scored zero, as one might expect at the start of school. By the end of grade 1 there were about 13% of children who scored zero. Although there is clear improvement over time, it is concerning that there were still over 8% of learners who could not read a single letter after two years of schooling. If we exclude those repeating grade 1, then we can say that about 6% of the sample could not read a single letter at the end of grade 2. It is, however, encouraging that about 36% of learners could read at least 50 letters correctly in a minute by the end of grade 2." (Taylor, Cilliers, Prinsloo, Fleisch & Reddy, 2017: 67)
The average letter-sound recognition is South Africa in well-performing schools are believed to be 46 letters pm in Grade 1.
The average letter-sound recognition is South Africa in well-performing schools are believed to be 46 letters pm in Grade 1.
Here are links to more information about the EGRA
Here are links to more information about the EGRA
Assessment toolkit: http://www.earlyliteracynetwork.org/content/early-grade-reading-assessment-egra-toolkit-second-edition
Zenlit project: http://www.zenexfoundation.org.za/images/resources/Literacy_Symposium/EGRA_Zenlit.pdf
Word recognition assessment
Word recognition assessment
Word recognition is the ability to automatically decode words which leads to reading fluency. Word recognition can be developed through exposure to vocabulary (low and high frequency) and sight words but also through systematic teaching and learning experiences such as decoding activities and "word attack" exercises.
Word recognition is the ability to automatically decode words which leads to reading fluency. Word recognition can be developed through exposure to vocabulary (low and high frequency) and sight words but also through systematic teaching and learning experiences such as decoding activities and "word attack" exercises.
Only when automaticity of decoding and word recognition is developed will learners be able to read fluently and comprehend what they are reading. It is therefore important that learners' word recognition skills are assessed to establish where they still need intervention in order to read more skillfully and with better understanding.
Only when automaticity of decoding and word recognition is developed will learners be able to read fluently and comprehend what they are reading. It is therefore important that learners' word recognition skills are assessed to establish where they still need intervention in order to read more skillfully and with better understanding.
One-minute reading test (word recognition)
One-minute reading test (word recognition)
More information on the one-minute test
More information on the one-minute test
Click on the arrow
Click on the arrow
The One-Minute Reading test is a well-known reading test used in South Africa, with reliable norm tables (benchmarks). The One-Minute Reading test is used to evaluate learners’ reading age and to document their progress over time in comparison to national fluency norms.
The One-Minute Reading test is a well-known reading test used in South Africa, with reliable norm tables (benchmarks). The One-Minute Reading test is used to evaluate learners’ reading age and to document their progress over time in comparison to national fluency norms.
Learners get one minute to read as many words as they can from left to right. If a learner reads a word incorrectly or skips a word, draw a line through that word and do not count it at the end.
Learners get one minute to read as many words as they can from left to right. If a learner reads a word incorrectly or skips a word, draw a line through that word and do not count it at the end.
Do take note that the one minute reading tests is based on learners’ word recognition and decoding ability which means that it does not address all aspects of reading such as reading comprehension. However, reading fluency correlates with reading comprehension which means that the one minute reading test is a good predictor of a learners reading comprehension ability. In order to determine a learners reading comprehension skills, a one minute reading test is not sufficient.
Do take note that the one minute reading tests is based on learners’ word recognition and decoding ability which means that it does not address all aspects of reading such as reading comprehension. However, reading fluency correlates with reading comprehension which means that the one minute reading test is a good predictor of a learners reading comprehension ability. In order to determine a learners reading comprehension skills, a one minute reading test is not sufficient.
To download the one minute reading test and its norms that is used mostly within the South African context, follow this link: https://drive.google.com/file/d/1STzl36v9oO2GyE4r4oQde1WU067I4nVR/view?usp=sharing
To download the one minute reading test and its norms that is used mostly within the South African context, follow this link: https://drive.google.com/file/d/1STzl36v9oO2GyE4r4oQde1WU067I4nVR/view?usp=sharing
Here is an example of the test. This learner is 9 years old and read 52 words correctly within one minute. According to the national norms the learner’s reading age is 8 years and one month, which means that the child has a backlog of 11 months.
Here is an example of the test. This learner is 9 years old and read 52 words correctly within one minute. According to the national norms the learner’s reading age is 8 years and one month, which means that the child has a backlog of 11 months.
Other words per minute benchmarks
Other words per minute benchmarks
Fountas & Pinnell Recommended Oral Reading Rates are as follow:
Fountas & Pinnell Recommended Oral Reading Rates are as follow:
Evan-moor benchmarks are as follow:
Evan-moor benchmarks are as follow:
Reading fluency assessment
Reading fluency assessment
Reading fluency can be assessed when learners read a text aloud and the teacher observes the learners' reading behaviour. Reading behaviour can then be assessed using a rubric with specific criteria or via an observation checklist. Running Records is also a well-known oral reading fluency assessment tool that can be used.
Reading fluency can be assessed when learners read a text aloud and the teacher observes the learners' reading behaviour. Reading behaviour can then be assessed using a rubric with specific criteria or via an observation checklist. Running Records is also a well-known oral reading fluency assessment tool that can be used.
Running Records
Running Records
More information on Running Records
More information on Running Records
Running Records capture what children know and understand about the reading process. They capture children’s thinking. Running Records provide you with an opportunity to analyse what happened and plan appropriate instruction. From Running Records, you have evidence of what the child is able to do, ready to learn, and learning over a period of time. Noted researcher Marie Clay designed this very effective and widely used tool internationally (Scholastic Canada, 2002).
Running Records capture what children know and understand about the reading process. They capture children’s thinking. Running Records provide you with an opportunity to analyse what happened and plan appropriate instruction. From Running Records, you have evidence of what the child is able to do, ready to learn, and learning over a period of time. Noted researcher Marie Clay designed this very effective and widely used tool internationally (Scholastic Canada, 2002).
A Running Record is not just the recording of right and wrong words such as the one minute reading test. It requires observing all behaviours to help determine the “thinking process” children are using as they read the text. You are therefore encouraged to record all behaviours children display during reading. Running Records are also a critical piece of assessment for the formation of dynamic (changing regularly) guided reading groups, and allow for the selection of “just the right” texts and the teaching of appropriate strategies. Running Records allow you to document progress over time when an initial or baseline record is compared to a more recent one.
A Running Record is not just the recording of right and wrong words such as the one minute reading test. It requires observing all behaviours to help determine the “thinking process” children are using as they read the text. You are therefore encouraged to record all behaviours children display during reading. Running Records are also a critical piece of assessment for the formation of dynamic (changing regularly) guided reading groups, and allow for the selection of “just the right” texts and the teaching of appropriate strategies. Running Records allow you to document progress over time when an initial or baseline record is compared to a more recent one.
To take a Running Record, sit beside a child as he or she reads a selected portion of the text aloud in a natural and relaxed environment. It is necessary to select a time when you can hear the child read without interruptions, such as when children are engaged in quiet reading or on independent literacy activities. Observe and record everything the child says and does during the reading. You will find yourself noticing more and more about children’s reading behaviours each time you take a Running Record. For more information on running records, following this link:
To take a Running Record, sit beside a child as he or she reads a selected portion of the text aloud in a natural and relaxed environment. It is necessary to select a time when you can hear the child read without interruptions, such as when children are engaged in quiet reading or on independent literacy activities. Observe and record everything the child says and does during the reading. You will find yourself noticing more and more about children’s reading behaviours each time you take a Running Record. For more information on running records, following this link:
Steps in taking a Running Record
Steps in taking a Running Record
Steps in creating your own Running Records assessment:
Steps in creating your own Running Records assessment:
1) Select the text.
1) Select the text.
First, select a text from an appropriate level for a child. Preferably use graded text.
First, select a text from an appropriate level for a child. Preferably use graded text.
2) Introduce the text.
2) Introduce the text.
The introduction is important for developing the background information each child needs to read the text. The text introduction is brief and natural. After introducing the text, let the child preview the book. (To ensure consistency of assessment, it is important that each child is introduced to the text in the same way).
The introduction is important for developing the background information each child needs to read the text. The text introduction is brief and natural. After introducing the text, let the child preview the book. (To ensure consistency of assessment, it is important that each child is introduced to the text in the same way).
3) Take a Running Record.
3) Take a Running Record.
Indicate where the child should begin reading aloud. If the text is a short one, the child should read the whole selection (even if the recording is not done on the last few pages) and complete the conference right after. For a longer text, pre-select a logical starting and stopping place of at least 150 words. The child then goes off to complete the reading on his or her own.
Indicate where the child should begin reading aloud. If the text is a short one, the child should read the whole selection (even if the recording is not done on the last few pages) and complete the conference right after. For a longer text, pre-select a logical starting and stopping place of at least 150 words. The child then goes off to complete the reading on his or her own.
Before the child begins reading, remind him or her that you will be asking for a retelling once the reading is complete. Then ask the child to begin reading aloud. Take a Running Record to record the child’s reading.
Before the child begins reading, remind him or her that you will be asking for a retelling once the reading is complete. Then ask the child to begin reading aloud. Take a Running Record to record the child’s reading.
Here is a link to a template that you can use to record the reading behaviour (i.e. errors, self-corrections and cues used):
Here is a link to a template that you can use to record the reading behaviour (i.e. errors, self-corrections and cues used):
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1qP2lKsij3qdZ6ZWkhiXJWNu4Gf02Ruko/view?usp=sharing
When analysing your running record, you have to annotate the reading error as well as the miscue - See the "Teaching reading" page on this website.
When analysing your running record, you have to annotate the reading error as well as the miscue - See the "Teaching reading" page on this website.
4) Ask for a retelling/summary.
4) Ask for a retelling/summary.
Comprehension can never be based on reading performance alone; therefore, retelling is a vital part of the Diagnostic Reading Conference. Unaided retelling consists of children retelling the story/facts any way they choose. Simply introduce the retelling session with: Tell me all you remember about the story. With this prompt, most children re-create the story by including characters, setting, and/or the underlying theme. If children need encouragement, provide non-contented related prompts, such as: What else do you remember? Tell me more. If children are still non-responsive, content-related prompts are required.
Comprehension can never be based on reading performance alone; therefore, retelling is a vital part of the Diagnostic Reading Conference. Unaided retelling consists of children retelling the story/facts any way they choose. Simply introduce the retelling session with: Tell me all you remember about the story. With this prompt, most children re-create the story by including characters, setting, and/or the underlying theme. If children need encouragement, provide non-contented related prompts, such as: What else do you remember? Tell me more. If children are still non-responsive, content-related prompts are required.
When assessing a child’s retelling, listen for:
When assessing a child’s retelling, listen for:
– general understanding of the story
– accurate reporting of events (non-fiction)
– sequencing of events
– words and phrases used from the text
– connections to personal knowledge and experience
– use of effective vocabulary
– elements of character and setting
– supporting details (non-fiction)
5) Check comprehension/higher-level thinking.
5) Check comprehension/higher-level thinking.
Following the oral reading session and the retelling, conduct an interview with the child to assess his or her understanding of the text. This interview consists of questions related directly to the events/facts in the story, inference questions, and critical-thinking questions. This helps children develop their roles as text users and text critics.
Following the oral reading session and the retelling, conduct an interview with the child to assess his or her understanding of the text. This interview consists of questions related directly to the events/facts in the story, inference questions, and critical-thinking questions. This helps children develop their roles as text users and text critics.
6) Make instructional decisions.
6) Make instructional decisions.
Instructional decisions are critical in terms of building children’s ability to read increasingly difficult text. A child should not be held too long in a level, when they could be reading more complex texts. Moving them ahead before they integrate the needed strategies will make it more difficult for the child to read and comprehend the text easily. Text difficulty usually affects the fluency rate as well. You can use the analysis chart to help make instructional decisions for the child. After analysing the reading record and reflecting on the reading behaviour, instructional decisions need to be made. Reading strategies should be taught in a shared context and then practised in guided and independent reading. Guided reading continues to scaffold for the children before independence occurs. Self-monitoring strategies are best taught through shared reading practices
Instructional decisions are critical in terms of building children’s ability to read increasingly difficult text. A child should not be held too long in a level, when they could be reading more complex texts. Moving them ahead before they integrate the needed strategies will make it more difficult for the child to read and comprehend the text easily. Text difficulty usually affects the fluency rate as well. You can use the analysis chart to help make instructional decisions for the child. After analysing the reading record and reflecting on the reading behaviour, instructional decisions need to be made. Reading strategies should be taught in a shared context and then practised in guided and independent reading. Guided reading continues to scaffold for the children before independence occurs. Self-monitoring strategies are best taught through shared reading practices
Scoring a Running Record
Scoring a Running Record
You can use the following scoring to assess a child’s performance.
You can use the following scoring to assess a child’s performance.
1. Count only the running words in a text. Running words do not include titles, subtitles, captions, and so on.
1. Count only the running words in a text. Running words do not include titles, subtitles, captions, and so on.
2. Count each word in a skipped line as an error.
2. Count each word in a skipped line as an error.
3. Count as one error: Do not count:
3. Count as one error: Do not count:
◆ a substitution ◆ self-corrections
◆ a substitution ◆ self-corrections
◆ an omission ◆ repetitions
◆ an omission ◆ repetitions
◆ an incorrect attempt ◆ a correct attempt
◆ an incorrect attempt ◆ a correct attempt
◆ an unsuccessful appeal ◆ a successful appeal
◆ an unsuccessful appeal ◆ a successful appeal
◆ a told word ◆ words pronounced differently in a
◆ a told word ◆ words pronounced differently in a
◆ an insertion child’s dialect or accent
◆ an insertion child’s dialect or accent
Note:
Note:
A reader could have more errors than there are words on a line. However, a reader cannot have more errors than words on a page.
A reader could have more errors than there are words on a line. However, a reader cannot have more errors than words on a page.
4. Count a skipped page as one error and subtract the word count for that page from the total word count.
4. Count a skipped page as one error and subtract the word count for that page from the total word count.
5. Count proper nouns read inaccurately only once. Count other words read inaccurately each time.
5. Count proper nouns read inaccurately only once. Count other words read inaccurately each time.
6. Calculate the Percent of Accuracy for a record by subtracting the total number of errors made from the number of running words in the text. The answer will then be divided by the number of running words. See figure below.
6. Calculate the Percent of Accuracy for a record by subtracting the total number of errors made from the number of running words in the text. The answer will then be divided by the number of running words. See figure below.
7. Determine the Self-Correction Rate for a record. The Self-Correction Rate indicates how well a child self-monitors his or her reading. Calculate this rate by adding the total number of errors to the total number of self-corrections and dividing this sum total by the total number of self-corrections. For example, six total errors plus two self-corrections equals eight. If you divide eight by the total number of self-corrections, the answer is four. The self-correction rate is then recorded as 1:4, which shows the child self-corrected one time for every four words misread. A Self-Correction Rate of up to 1:5 shows the child is self-monitoring and using decoding strategies. See below.
7. Determine the Self-Correction Rate for a record. The Self-Correction Rate indicates how well a child self-monitors his or her reading. Calculate this rate by adding the total number of errors to the total number of self-corrections and dividing this sum total by the total number of self-corrections. For example, six total errors plus two self-corrections equals eight. If you divide eight by the total number of self-corrections, the answer is four. The self-correction rate is then recorded as 1:4, which shows the child self-corrected one time for every four words misread. A Self-Correction Rate of up to 1:5 shows the child is self-monitoring and using decoding strategies. See below.
8. Once you have calculated the Percent of Accuracy and the Self-Correction Rate, you can determine whether the reading level for that book is easy, instructional, or hard for a particular reader.
8. Once you have calculated the Percent of Accuracy and the Self-Correction Rate, you can determine whether the reading level for that book is easy, instructional, or hard for a particular reader.
Here is a table that list a few of the reading errors that you should observe and write down while the learner is reading:
Here is a table that list a few of the reading errors that you should observe and write down while the learner is reading:
Here is a link to a template that you can use when doing a Running Record using any text.
Here is a link to a template that you can use when doing a Running Record using any text.
Running Record Reading behaviour template: https://drive.google.com/file/d/1exDNGYvHGtycxq_6oJwP7PZEUixZsEIB/view?usp=sharing
(Source: Scholastic Canada, 2002)
You can also use an online Running Records calculator if you want, here is the link:
You can also use an online Running Records calculator if you want, here is the link:
Determining a learners' reading level
Determining a learners' reading level
You can also use a rule of thumb to determine learners' reading level after calculating their errors per 50/100 words.
You can also use a rule of thumb to determine learners' reading level after calculating their errors per 50/100 words.
After calculating a learner’s accuracy rate and self-correction rate, here is how to interpret the percentages.
After calculating a learner’s accuracy rate and self-correction rate, here is how to interpret the percentages.
Click on the arrow...
Click on the arrow...
• Easy Texts (96-100%)
• Easy Texts (96-100%)
When children read an easy text, they are able to read for enjoyment and meaning. There are no decoding challenges. Easy texts are appropriate for independent reading (Victoria State Government, 2018).
When children read an easy text, they are able to read for enjoyment and meaning. There are no decoding challenges. Easy texts are appropriate for independent reading (Victoria State Government, 2018).
• Appropriate Instructional Texts (93-95%)
• Appropriate Instructional Texts (93-95%)
These texts are selected by you, and have many supports and very few challenges for the reader. They are at the higher-end of what Clay has identified as Instructional Texts (90-95%). Because you are usually working with a group of children and not individuals, it is difficult to match texts appropriately to the background knowledge and instructional strategies of an entire group. These texts are appropriate for guided reading (Victoria State Government, 2018).
These texts are selected by you, and have many supports and very few challenges for the reader. They are at the higher-end of what Clay has identified as Instructional Texts (90-95%). Because you are usually working with a group of children and not individuals, it is difficult to match texts appropriately to the background knowledge and instructional strategies of an entire group. These texts are appropriate for guided reading (Victoria State Government, 2018).
• Challenging Instructional Texts (90-92%)
• Challenging Instructional Texts (90-92%)
These texts can be more challenging for a child or group of children. A text at this percentage may require too much work. A guided reading text should provide only one or two challenges and be a supported, comfortable read (Victoria State Government, 2018).
These texts can be more challenging for a child or group of children. A text at this percentage may require too much work. A guided reading text should provide only one or two challenges and be a supported, comfortable read (Victoria State Government, 2018).
• Hard Texts (Below 90%)
• Hard Texts (Below 90%)
These texts have too many challenges for children to read (Victoria State Government, 2018).
These texts have too many challenges for children to read (Victoria State Government, 2018).
Observation Checklist for reading fluency
Observation Checklist for reading fluency
Here is a link to a reading fluency observation checklist that you can download:
Here is a link to a reading fluency observation checklist that you can download:
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1Q6gz1U8KDnuq9GeC15QJqso0kS_8-H5z/view?usp=sharing
Reading comprehension assessment
Reading comprehension assessment
Reading comprehension can be assessed by asking learners' questions about a text. They can answer these questions verbally or in a written manner.
Reading comprehension can be assessed by asking learners' questions about a text. They can answer these questions verbally or in a written manner.
However, when designing reading comprehension assessment measures/tests, teachers have to consider the following:
However, when designing reading comprehension assessment measures/tests, teachers have to consider the following:
- Readability of the text
- Difficulty level of the questions (higher and lower order questions)
- Types of questions being asked (e.g. multiple choice, open-ended, sequencing etc.)
When designing reading comprehension tests, teachers can use Bloom's taxonomy or Barret's taxonomy to help guide them with regards to the difficulty level of the questions.
When designing reading comprehension tests, teachers can use Bloom's taxonomy or Barret's taxonomy to help guide them with regards to the difficulty level of the questions.
Click on this images to learn more about designing reading comprehension tests.
Click on this images to learn more about designing reading comprehension tests.
Spelling assessment
Spelling assessment
Following this link to find information about the following spelling-related information:
Following this link to find information about the following spelling-related information:
https://www.gl-assessment.co.uk/content-pages/swst-further-analysis-of-pupils-responses/
- Analysing spelling errors
- Improving spelling skills
- Structured lists and supplementary assessments
- Summary check sheet and pupil check sheets
- Rules introduced at each level of spelling
- Examples of analysis
Curriculum-Based Measurement:
Curriculum-Based Measurement:
Words correctly spelt vs Correct Letter Sequence (CLS)
Words correctly spelt vs Correct Letter Sequence (CLS)
Correct Letter Sequence (CLS) (Also known as CBM spelling tests) are different from Words Correct Sequence (WCS) tests typically used in South Africa.
Correct Letter Sequence (CLS) (Also known as CBM spelling tests) are different from Words Correct Sequence (WCS) tests typically used in South Africa.
CLS tests are designed to give credit to the learners for even partial competencies.
CLS tests are designed to give credit to the learners for even partial competencies.
See the table below, for the difference between a CLS vs a WCS:
See the table below, for the difference between a CLS vs a WCS:
How does CLS work?
How does CLS work?
Click on the arrow
Click on the arrow
Instead of giving credit for words only when all letters are correct, CLS views spelling words as being made up of smaller units called letter-sequences. See example above.
Instead of giving credit for words only when all letters are correct, CLS views spelling words as being made up of smaller units called letter-sequences. See example above.
Correct letter-sequences are pairs of letters in a word that are placed in the proper sequence. Therefore, if a learner is able to put at least some letters in the proper sequence, that child will be given partial credit for a word.
Correct letter-sequences are pairs of letters in a word that are placed in the proper sequence. Therefore, if a learner is able to put at least some letters in the proper sequence, that child will be given partial credit for a word.
Although a CLS can be administered individually, CLS spelling test are typically given to groups of students. The examiner/teacher reads aloud a list of spelling words, reading successive words after a predetermined number of seconds. Learners then attempt to spell the words on their answer sheets in the time allotted.
Although a CLS can be administered individually, CLS spelling test are typically given to groups of students. The examiner/teacher reads aloud a list of spelling words, reading successive words after a predetermined number of seconds. Learners then attempt to spell the words on their answer sheets in the time allotted.
Teachers should compile a single spelling word list to be taught during the instructional year and use the list to create individual CLS spelling tests. From the spelling word list that make up the measurement pool, the examiner/teacher can choose words at random when compiling individual CLS test.
Teachers should compile a single spelling word list to be taught during the instructional year and use the list to create individual CLS spelling tests. From the spelling word list that make up the measurement pool, the examiner/teacher can choose words at random when compiling individual CLS test.
For grades 1-3, a CLS test should comprise of 12 spelling words, with a new word being announced to students every 10 seconds. A spelling test for grades 4-8 will include 17 words, with a new word announced to learners every 7 seconds.
For grades 1-3, a CLS test should comprise of 12 spelling words, with a new word being announced to students every 10 seconds. A spelling test for grades 4-8 will include 17 words, with a new word announced to learners every 7 seconds.
*CLS 44 (sequences correct) Total of 46 95.6%
*CLS 44 (sequences correct) Total of 46 95.6%
*WCS 8 (words correct) Total of 10 80%
*WCS 8 (words correct) Total of 10 80%
Here are links to more information on CLS spelling assessment instructions and scoring procedures:
Here are links to more information on CLS spelling assessment instructions and scoring procedures:
https://my.vanderbilt.edu/specialeducationinduction/files/2013/07/IA.Spelling-CBM.pdf
Schonell spelling test
Schonell spelling test
Follow this link for the Schonell spelling test and its norms:
Follow this link for the Schonell spelling test and its norms:
https://cdn.learningstaircase.co.nz/assets/Uploads/Printables/Schonell-Spelling-Tests.pdf
CAPS Language Assessment requirements
CAPS Language Assessment requirements
Bibliography
Bibliography
Bester, M. (2019). Chapter 5: Reading and Viewing. In: Joubert, I. Literacy in the Foundation Phase (3rd Ed.), (pp. 106-156). Pretoria: Van Schaiks.
Blunden-Greeff, L. (2014). Teaching reading and writing to EFAL learners. In: Phatudi, N. Introducing English as First Additional Language in the Early Years. (pp.140- 171).Cape Town: Pearsons.
Coltman, G. & Place, J. (2013). Chapter 5: Teaching reading in English as a First Additional Language. In: A. Hugo & E. Lenyai. Teaching English as a First Additional Language in the Foundation Phase. (pp. 99-113). Cape Town: Juta and Company.
Doyle, M.A. (2013). Chapter 26: Marie M. Clays' Theoretical Perspective: A Literacy Processing Theory. In: Donna E. Alvermann, Norman J. Unrau & Robert B. Ruddell. Theoretical Models of Reading (6th ed.), (pp.636-656). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Phatudi, N. (2019). Chapter 10: Teaching English as a First Additional Language in Grades 1-3. In: Joubert, I. Literacy in the Foundation Phase (3rd Ed.), (pp. 293-312). Pretoria: Van Schaiks.
Rumelhart, D.E. (1994). Toward an interactive model of reading. In R.B. Ruddell, M.R. Ruddell, & H. Singer (Eds.), Theoretical models and processes of reading (4th ed.), pp. 864–894). Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Rathvon, N. (2004). Early Reading Assessment: A practitioner's handbook. New York: The Guilford Press.
Scholastic Canada. 2002. How to take Running Records. Available online: http://scholastic.ca/education/movingupwithliteracyplace/pdfs/grade4/runningrecords.pdf
Taylor, S., Cilliers, J. Prinsloo, C. Fleisch, B. & Reddy, V. (2017). The Early Grade Reading Study: Impact evaluation after two years of intervention - Technical report. [Online]. https://www.jet.org.za/clearinghouse/projects/primted/resources/language-and-literacy-resources-repository/egrs-technical-report-13-oct-2017.pdf
University of Oregon. (2020). UO Dibels data system. Available online: https://dibels.uoregon.edu/assessment/index/material/ Accessed: 10 December 2019.
Victoria State Government. (2018). Running Records. Available online: https://www.education.vic.gov.au/school/teachers/teachingresources/discipline/english/literacy/readingviewing/Pages/examplerunning.aspx#link24
Zenex. (2018). Struggling readers and difficulties they face. [Online]. https://www.zenexfoundation.org.za/the-expert-reading-teacher#e-learners-with-reading-difficulties
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