Governance Framework

Politics: Governance & Decision-Making

Japan's governance and decision-making process is informed by three levels of government; national, regional, and local. Global organizations also have an influence in Japan's political setting. Ministries and other political authoritative bodies have the greatest political power reside on the national level upon correspondence with regional prefectures and local municipalities to implement emission reductions and other air quality standards.

Figure 14: Main governmental actors and key responsivities in relation to air quality (Botta & Yamasaki, 2020).

National (Zenkoku)

Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport, and Tourism (MLIT)

Recommendations related to transportation infrastructure design and its potential effects on local communities and tourism opportunities by conducting cost-benefit analysis'
Help inform local programs to reduce emissions

(Botta et al., 2020)

Ministry of Economy, Trade, and Industry (METI)

Responsible for expanding economic interests through industry and investments by implementing supporting government policy

(Cole, 1994)

Ministry of Environment japan (MOEJ)

largest influence on the implementation of environmental standards through emission controls, which are often linked to the automotive industry and the industrial sector
Set the standard for Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) that then operational in all levels of government to ensure air quality and other environmental conditions are not directly threatened by project development; National (large-scale projects), Regional (medium-scale projects), Local (small-scale projects)

(Botta et al., 2020).

Regional (Chiiki)

47 regional authority units in Japan and are known as prefectural governments
They were created as a response to the political reformation in the mid-late 1800's where the Japanese government decentralized from strictly being led by national authorities
Act as a bridge between national and local level governments regarding public services, Infrastructure, and economic planning
"Formulate plans regarding measures which should be implemented in order to reduce the total volume of automobile emitted nitrogen oxides... based on the fundamental policy for total volume reduction" (Ministry of the Environment, Government of Japan,1992)
Specific to the conditions within prefectural boundaries and are required to prepare documents which are reviewed for approval from the Prime Minister
Efforts to also inform the public on reduction plans are expected

(Tokyo Metropolitan Government; Nippon, 2023; Fiveable, 2024; Ministry of the Environment, Government of Japan,1992)

Local (Chihō)

Operates under the national and regional level government structures regarding specific measures tailored to localized social, environmental, and economic conditions
Involved in the implementation of reduction emission plans
Apart of the document submission process reliant on the cooperation of local businesses, citizen engagement, and other relevant stakeholders

(Ministry of the Environment, Government of Japan,1992)

Global (Gurōbaru)

The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD); 1961

A forum of 37 member countries globally who collectively hold 62.2 percent of the world’s total GDP

Provide guiding recommendations for best practice regarding:

Stakeholder engagement
Framework models for policy and regulation
Management and strategy formulation

(Botta et al., 2020)

Founding Principle:

“their economic systems are interrelated and that the prosperity of each of them depends on the prosperity of all”

(Runde et al., 2024)

1997: Kyoto Protocol (COP 3)

Takeaways:

Japan's imperial capital hosted the Conference of the Parties (COP 3), formally known as the Kyoto Protocol, where developed industrial and economic parties from around the world discussed climate issues using global frameworks
target average to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions which were encouraged to be implemented through the individual countries political frameworks
Japan was one of the first countries to have actioned the commitments
(Encyclopaedia Britannica, 2024; Kameyama, 2004; United Nations Climate Change, n.d.) Image: (Joyce, 2015)

United Nations Sustainable Development Goals

Takeaways:

Japan is actively working towards the UN's SDGs, particularly good health and wellbeing (SDG 3), sustainable cities and communities (SDG 11), climate action (SDG 13) and life on land (SDG 15).
Japan's efforts to reduce PM2.5 levels directly contribute to the SDGs stated. They have integrated these into their national development strategies and policies.
Collaboration with stakeholders, partnered with the NGOs/NPOs, influenced local strategies and laws, incorporated sustainable practices in businesses and industries, utilized scientific innovations, technologically advanced mitigation strategies, and promoting sustainable consumption and labour conditions.
Facilitates meetings to promote SDG initiatives to combat/mitigate the impacts of PM2.5 levels in Japan.

(How Science and Industry Are Driving Japan's Sustainable Development, n.d.).

2015: The Paris Agreement (COP 21)

Takeaways:

196 Parties of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) adopted a treaty to commit to reducing global temperatures to 1.5°C, the equivalent to pre-industrial levels
Included; adaptation, damage control, building public awareness, and finances.

(United Climate Change, n.d)

Citizen led 'pollution control' movements

Prior to WW2, there was a collective sentiment of inevitability regarding the industrial pollution problem.
In the 1960's social conditions began changing, where the citizens begun being liberated of outdated cultural norms that promoted ideas obediency toward authoritative structures

This was the catalyst for anti-pollution movements and environmental activism, where surveys revealed roughly 50% of the Japanese public suspected to have directly been affected by air pollution (especially amongst those living in urbanized areas)
Authorities caved to public pressures and implemented regulation
They justify the continuation of their industrial sector as a means of generating wealth in which they believed to afford anti-pollution measures

(Fujikura et al., 2005; Cole, 1994)

Political Implications

It was evident that the Japanese Government and its Citizens had conflicting interests...

In attempt to bridge the gap between growing air quality concerns as well as maintaining their global competitive edge, Japan was forced to adapt, which resulted in:

a) Policy and Regulation

Japan has established permissible limits for various pollutants and hazardous substances contributing to PM2.5 levels in the air. Stricter limits can be imposed in areas exceeding standards and adjusted based on regional conditions.
They established environmental quality standards for PM2.5 that align with the World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines in order to protect public health. Japan has implemented various regulations to combat PM2.5. They have regulations on industrial emissions and they put forth clean energy initiatives to encourage energy efficiency. They also imposed stricter vehicle emission standards, promoting electric and hybrid vehicles and managing traffic.
Japan invests in science and research, and makes efforts to raise public awareness about PM2.5 pollution as a means of regulating the amount released in the air and the environmental impacts it has.
(Botta et al., 2020; Environmental Quality Standards in Japan - Air Quality, n.d; Air Pollution Control Act - English - Japanese Law Translation, n.d.).

General:

1; Basic Environmental Law and Plan (1993)

Maintain a reciprocal relationship between humans and natural elements (air, water, land, human health, biodiversity) through policy and programs/measures/controls that support long-term conservation goals
Was heavily influenced by commitments the Japanese National Government by signing the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) in 1993
Outlined a given responsibility countries including Japan, varying dependant on their individualized resource assets and abilities for the betterment of the associated global relations and other members of the UNFCCC

(Ministry of the Environment, Government of Japan,1992)

2; Energy Conservation Law (1990)

Helped to promote government efforts to improve national-energy consumption and efficiency for product manufacture such as:

The Top Runner Program (1998)

Depending on product types, there would be a standardized weight for imported and exported goods ultimately limiting the amount a manufacturer can produce therefore it challenges them to do so with utmost efficiency with the incentive of getting the greatest value of the product.

(Agency for Natural Resources and Energy, 2011)

3; Climate and Clean Air Coalition

Japan has successfully implemented a comprehensive approach to managing HFCs by addressing issues from production and usage to proper disposal and recycling. The country is also committed to reducing other short-lived climate pollutants like methane, with initiatives aimed at decreasing emissions from agriculture and promoting cleaner practices, even in countries such as Vietnam.
In addition to its climate efforts, Japan is ahead of the world in waste-to-energy systems, processing 74.2% of municipal solid waste for energy recovery. In an effort to continually improves air pollution controls, Japan has set strict vehicle emission standards, and through international cooperation, Japan advocates for environmental protection measures as part of the post-pandemic recovery plan. The country aims to spur global greening by emphasizing global collaboration to combat climate change and air pollution.

(Japan | Climate & Clean Air Coalition, n.d.; Waste to Energy, n.d.)

Figure 14. Disaster Management System of Japan. Source: Elaborated by the authors based on Cabinet Office Disaster Management.

4; Bosai Culture (Disaster Preparedness)

Japan leverages its strong tradition of disaster preparedness to inform and improve environmental governance, including detailed reporting and public disclosure of environmental information. Bosai prioritizes proactive measures to prevent or mitigate the impact of disasters. This mindset extends to environmental hazards like PM2.5 pollution.
The bosai culture also emphasizes community involvement in disaster preparedness. Similarly, efforts to combat PM2.5 require public awareness and participation.
Japan promotes public awareness campaigns to educate citizens about PM2.5 pollution, its health impacts, and ways to reduce exposure. This aligns with the bosai approach of empowering individuals to take action.
Bosai is not just about responding to immediate disasters; it's about building long-term resilience as Japan is a disaster prone country. They believe in the passing down of generational knowledge as a primary prevention/preparedness mechanism.
. This long-term perspective is also essential for addressing PM2.5 pollution. Japan's commitment to continuous improvement in air quality management, through policy updates, technological advancements, and international cooperation, demonstrates this long-term vision

(Air Pollution Control Act - English - Japanese Law Translation, n.d; Air Pollution Impacts an Aging Society, n.d; Promoting the Bosai Spirit of Tohoku to Create a Better, Safer World, n.d; Pastrana-Huguet et al., 2022)

Specific:

5; The Air Pollution Control Law (1967-68)

The first application of centralized emission regulation on sulfur (SOx) and nitrogen oxides (NOx)
The intent was to respond to complaints regarding the poor air quality in Japan while also maintaining "harmony with sound industrial development" (Fujikura et al., 2005)
Chapter II of the regulations in the Air Pollution Control Act outlines the standards and procedures for controlling soot and smoke emissions in Japan. The Ministry of the Environment established permissible limits for sulfur oxides, soot and dust, and hazardous substances emitted from units that generate these. (Air Pollution Control Act - English - Japanese Law Translation, n.d.).
The chapter emphasizes the development of plans to reduce total emissions in areas with concentrated industrial activity. These plans include specific targets for reducing emissions from factories and businesses (Air Pollution Control Act - English - Japanese Law Translation, n.d.).
Environmental information management is detrimental as detailed reporting and public disclosure are required. Plans must also be adjusted as necessary to mitigate changing pollution levels as per the law (Air Pollution Control Act - English - Japanese Law Translation, n.d.).

These measures are implemented to ensure air quality standards are met and to drastically reduce the impact of industrial emissions on public health and the environment.

6; Air Quality Monitoring

Launched by JAXA, this uses Himawari 8 satellite imagery and real-time geophysical data to track aerosols and PM2.5, which helps to pinpoint pollution sources and strengthen ground monitoring networks for better pollution forecasts and health risk prevention .
Japan also has a total of 1,900 air quality monitoring stations across the country. The stations are categorized into two main types:
Ambient Air Quality Monitoring Stations (AAQMS) - located in residential areas to assess overall air quality.
Roadside Air Quality Monitoring Stations (RsAQMS) - situated in areas directly impacted by vehicle emissions to monitor pollution from traffic.

(MOEJ, 2009; Contributions to Sustainable Development Goals, n.d; Ministry of the Environment, Government of Japan,1992; Ito et al., 2021)

Figure 15. Optical thickness of aerosol and PM2.5 particles using JAXA Himawari 8 satellite imagery.

7; Automobile NOx/PM Act (1992)

Car specific reduction plans and are carried out through coordination of national, prefectural, and local levels of government by MOEJ
The Act applies to the areas that experience the highest concentrations including Tokyo, Saitama, Kanagawa, Osaka, and Hyogo Prefectures
Vehicles are expected to be replaced they do not have approved NOx and PM control devices which are common in newer models

(Ministry of the Environment, Government of Japan,1992; Transport Policy, n.d.).

8; Carbon Neutrality Goals (2015)

Japan adopted the Climate Change Strategy in 2016 (post Paris Agreement) where they set an individualized goal of net-zero GHG emissions by 2050, based on the idea that addressing climate change is no longer a constraint on economic growth
"Measures bring transformation of industrial structures as well as its economy and society, leading to dynamic economic growth" (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, 2021, p. 3).
Green Growth Strategy (2021); action plan in 14 fields that will work toward achieving their 2050 goal

(Gov. of Japan, 2021)

Figure 16: The 14 Growth Sectors of Japan’s Green Growth Strategy

b) Green Innovation

9; Green Innovation Fund (2020)

2-trillion-yen (18.2-billion-dollar) aid resource for various sectors to explore environmentally friendly alternatives
Ensures alignment with EQS's and other environmental laws while also securing a spot in the growing market for renewable energy

Electric vehicles! Honda, Mitubishi, Toyota; "decarbonization of the electric power sector and electrification of other sectors" (Gov. of Japan, 2021)
Basic Hydrogen Strategy; plans to reduce its cost so it can be a more readily available and affordable energy source for businesses and consumers

(Agency for Natural Resources and Energy, 2023; Human Rights Watch, 2022; MOEJ, 2009; Gov. of Japan, 2021)

c) Short-comings

The efforts Japan has invested in policy and environmental innovation are paying off, as air pollution concentrations of particulate matter (PM 2.5) have been consistently decreasing.

Eg; Post implementation of the air Pollution Control law, SO2 emissions in Yokkaichi City declined by 83,000 from 1971 to 1975

(Fujikura et al., 2005; Ito et al., 2021)

However....

Negligence of 'Good Governance' Principles

Accountability

Between the years 2013 and 2022, the use of coal for energy production was only reduced by 2.1%. This is significantly lower than in other industrialized democracies. Despite the evidence, Japan is still propagated as being on track "and that Japan's performance is superior to that of other developed countries" (Ohno, T, 2024).

Transparency

Japan finances projects in developing countries that depend heavily on the use of fossil fuels. An eg: West Java, Indonesia, Indramayu (coal-fired power plant) financed by Japan. Loopholes have been exploited, with justifications claiming that financing during the initial project phase causes no harm.

Participation

Mining for aluminum in Africa which is used to make electric vehicles is mostly still coal-dependent, which poses a serious threat to environmental conditions, including local air quality and larger contributions to global warming. Despite the opposition of significant stakeholders, including farmers whose land will be affected, project development continues nonetheless.

(Human Rights Watch, 2022; Rodi & Paendong, 2020)

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