Peer-Reviewed Articles
Cole, J. A. (1994). The Right to Demand: Citizen Activism and Environmental Politics in Japan. The Journal of Environment & Development, 3(2), 77–95. http://www.jstor.org/stable/44318047
The Right to Demand: Citizen Activism and Environmental Politics in Japan by Cole, J. A (1994) is a peer-reviewed segment in The Journal of Environment & Development that discusses the various actors, events, and policies that were involved in a greater presence of citizen activism in Japan. The analysis of the relationship between the Japanese government and its citizens is of great value to my portion of the case study assignment. The piece highlights historically significant events related to a growing concern regarding pollution where there is an emphasis on Post World War 2. This was after a period of rapid growth and industrial expansion that brought forth a variety of wicked problems including air pollution. The political state of the 1960’s enabled great liberation, where Japan welcomed greater participation in political spaces from Non-government influences. This led to the successful implementation of critical environmental representation and protection in legal contexts. Summatively, these contents are telling and depict the power in reshaping government structures that are in alignment with citizen demand and produce long lasting results for the betterment of the social, political, economic dynamics in relation to the managing of environmental conditions. Additionally, the mention of relevant actors such as The Ministry of International Trade and Industry (MITI) has prompted further research on their involvement in current anti-pollution movements exceeding the timeline in which Cole, J. A. mentions. The paper is a historical piece in nature and involves case specific examples as support throughout. This approach is appropriate as a significant amount of time has passed since where a cohesive and conclusive depiction of the events mentioned is adequate.
The paper was published in JSTOR that prides itself on being a “high-quality, interdisciplinary archive of scholarship” (JSTOR, n.d) which proves the journal's credibility. The detailed yet not-overdrawn paper was a relatively easy read that contained a lot of valuable information. There was transparency regarding early government approaches that led to the worsening of pollution concentrations which I appreciated. Although, as much as there was mention of citizen involvement, there was no inclusion of direct citizen input. This may result in bias or a false depiction from the citizen movements Additionally, the paper was published in 1994, leaving out 28 years of potentially critical revolutions related to air pollution activism in Japan.
Shaw, D. (2009). The Way forward? - Shinto and a 21st Century Japanese Ecological Attitude. Nature, Space and the Sacred, Chapter 23 pg. 413-424. Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315248318
Shaw, D. 's (2009) chapter in the book titled ‘Nature, Space and the Sacred’ looks at the ways Shinto, the native religion and belief system of Japan has shaped ecological perspectives throughout history. There is great reference to how Shinto attitudes are notably different from Western ideas. Comparison is drawn between the use of the words ecology opposed to environment. Using the environment employs anthropocentric narratives whereas Shinto derives ecology from its Greek origins meaning ‘home’ to support the idea of a harmonious and reciprocal relationship with the natural world. A deeper understanding of Japanese world views through the lens of Shinto traditional ecological concepts, can help solidify a sense of moral baseline that fueled social belief systems regarding advocacy. Additionally, the author promotes the idea that these ancient concepts can be beneficial in ameliorating the state of contemporary environmental issues, such as air pollution. This can be a tool to promote a holistic approach to Japan’s green sector. Where appealing to integral morality opposes looking at the ways in which they can maximize profit margins sustainably.
The methods consisted of reference to religious knowledge and its historical significance. As previously mentioned, the use of comparison is also attributed to the methodology of the chapter where drawing on external concepts enriched the potency of nature-based belief in Shinto-tradition. Finding this piece felt like finding a diamond in the rough. A lot of the resources I have come across for this project thus far have been very politically heavy which is to be expected. This piece however, was a refreshing read that provided depth to the origins of ecopolitics, where a desire for ecological interconnectedness existed long before they were tested by air pollution, and other environmental concerns. This also attributes to its weakness and inability to provide detailed accounts or data related to the issue. It is limited to philosophical interpretations, providing a narrowed field of understanding and depiction.
Botta, E. & S. Yamasaki (2020). Policies, regulatory framework and enforcement for air quality management: The case of Japan. OECD Environment Working Papers, No. 156. OECD Publishing, Paris. https://doi.org/10.1787/b2de0bc1-en
In 2019, the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) published an in-depth analysis titled "Policies, Regulatory Framework, and Enforcement for Air Quality Management: The Case of Japan." The report examines Japan’s air quality management regulations and enforcement, highlighting best practices and ongoing challenges. Despite significant progress, it underscores that PM2.5 pollution remains a major issue, with nearly 80% of Japan’s population in 2017 exposed to annual PM2.5 levels exceeding WHO guidelines. The study stresses the need for continued efforts, including strengthening regulations and enforcement mechanisms, to combat PM2.5 pollution. This report is a valuable resource for understanding Japan’s policy and regulatory challenges in air quality management, offering insights into areas requiring improvement. As an OECD publication, it carries strong credibility.
Liu, J., Li, J., & Yao, F. (2022). Source-receptor relationship of transboundary particulate matter pollution between China, South Korea and Japan: Approaches, current understanding and limitations. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 52(21), 3896–3920. https://doi.org/10.1080/10643389.2021.1964308
This peer-reviewed article examines the source-receptor relationship (SRR) of transboundary PM pollution in Northeast Asia, focusing on China, South Korea, and Japan. It analyzes pollution sources, their impact on receptor countries, and uncertainties stemming from variations in analysis periods, modeling approaches, and international collaboration. The study identifies China as a major contributor to PM pollution in South Korea and Japan but recognize discrepancies due to methodological differences. Key challenges in SRR studies include data quality issues, modeling limitations, and the distribution of environmental responsibilities. The article critically reviews existing SRR literature, making it particularly relevant amid ongoing diplomatic tensions over air pollution. It provides valuable insights into Japan’s struggle to distinguish local from transboundary PM2.5 pollution, informing policy measures to mitigate its effects. Methodologically, the study synthesizes findings from multiple SRR studies, assessing different approaches and their conclusions. This comparative analysis helps identify research inconsistencies and gaps. However, as a secondary source, it lacks independent empirical data, and variations in methodologies may limit the generalizability of its conclusions. Despite this, the study remains a reliable reference for understanding transboundary pollution challenges and improving air quality management in Japan.
Onishi, K., Yumimoto, K., Okuda, T., Fukuike, A., Maki, T., Nojima, M., Shinoda, M., Nakayama, T., Kurozawa, Y., Yamagata, Z., & Kurosaki, Y. (2025). Transboundary air pollution in coastal urban area in Japan: Transport model and positive matrix factorization analysis for SPM-PM2.5 and PM2.5. Urban Climate, 59, 102237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2024.102237.
This peer-reviewed research article aims to differentiate between local and transboundary sources of PM2.5 pollution to enhance health risk assessments and policy interventions in Japan. It examines the impact of transboundary air pollution on Japan’s air quality, with a focus on PM2.5 and SPM-PM2.5. Using advanced chemical analysis and modeling techniques, the study identifies pollution sources and distinguishes between local and external contributions. It highlights four major air pollution episodes in Yonago City, linking them to pollutants such as nitrate, sulfate aerosols, and Asian dust transported from outside Japan. This study is significant as it contributes to international air pollution research by proposing methodologies applicable globally. It provides empirical data essential for policy decisions, particularly in mitigating the health effects of transboundary pollution. Data collection involved on-site sampling of PM2.5 and SPM-PM2.5 in Yonago City over nine months using a novel slit jet impactor. Positive matrix factorization (PMF) analysis identified pollution sources, while chemical transport models (GEOS-Chem) and backward trajectory analysis (HYSPLIT) traced their origins.
The integration of chemical, statistical, and modeling techniques strengthens the study’s conclusions. However, reliance on global models introduces uncertainties due to assumptions in emission inventories. As a peer-reviewed study, it employs rigorous analytical methods, making it a reliable reference. Its detailed differentiation between local and transboundary PM2.5 sources clarifies the challenges posed by neighboring countries. The multi-method approach enhances the validity of findings, though the focus on a single city limits generalizability across Japan. Some uncertainties remain in source attribution due to model assumptions and potential gaps in emission data.
Government Documentation
Ministry of Economy, Trade, and Industry. (2023). Basic Hydrogen Strategy. https://www.meti.go.jp/shingikai/enecho/shoene_shinene/suiso_seisaku/pdf/20230606_5.pdf
The Basic Hydrogen Strategy is a strategic plan document produced by the governmental Ministry of Economy, Trade, and Industry (METI), in Japan. The document is a revision from its previous publication in 2017. With the proposed generation of the $2.5 trillion industry of hydrogen by 2050, The Basic Hydrogen Strategy outlines the ways in which Japan will capture this market opportunity and how they will do so safely (Agency for Natural Resources and Energy, 2023). Additionally, the document includes the potential projections if they follow through with the proposed green transformation (GX). There are important references to the influence of events such as Russia’s invasion of Ukraine, that has recently encouraged Japan to seek more domestic generations of energy instilling a sense of security and business for generations to come.
The strategy is a useful resource to understand where Japan is headed in the technological space and its application to improve the overall air quality of the country. Additionally, it is telling in regards to the concrete application of government interest in renewable energy, which frames the extent that authoritative stakeholders including governments and business are involved and committed to addressing environmental concerns including concentrations of pollutants in Japan’s air from the historical overuse of fossil fuels throughout the growth industrial sector.
The document includes strategic steps and numerical goals that have been formulated by the government of Japan to be attained within the proposed timelines for various hydrogen projects mentioned throughout. The specifics are appropriate and not only act as an accountability measure, but its public availability and first of its nature may inspire other countries to lead by its example. Statements referring to how hydrogen initiatives have allowed them to maintain a “technological edge over the rest of the world” (p. 4) which could easily be contested and debated amongst countries. Such claims made in this paper which is produced by the Japanese government may use language to inflate their influence. This is not to discredit their contributions and leads in hydrogen innovations, but is to be weary of potential biases that may be subliminally present. Government’s often front with pride and do not want to contribute to discourses, or negative narratives. This is particularly relevant to Japan, having a history of intentional strides to gain global respect through industrial capital (Saburō, 2019). This can be traced back to as early as the 1870’s, where Japanese authorities embarked on the The Iwakura Mission, where they observed the mechanisms of Westernalized dominance over trade and industry. This then influenced and was a model in which was replicated by Japan to then generate wealth and status for themselves.The paper is well organized and can easily be navigated. However, the language and references to regional specific policy or initiatives is quite complex. I am unfamiliar with a lot of the language used making it a difficult read. I will utilize external sources such as supplementary review documents to help.
Grey Literature
The Aozora Foundation. (2011). The History of Japan’s Air pollution. https://aozora.or.jp/lang/english/the-history-of-japans-air-pollution
The Aozora Foundation’s piece is an informational resource that reflects on ‘The History of Japan’s Air Pollution’. There is mention of relevant political reformations dating to as early as the 1860’s to the late 1990’s. This includes the appointment of Osaka, Japan as the country's smoke capital, the Four Great Pollution Lawsuits, and citizen rise as validated stakeholders in government accountability. There was emphasis on the effect that sulfur oxides (SOx), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and other particulates have had on the health of the Japanese related to industrial activity. This is useful to highlight the intersectional nature of air pollution in Japan. This cause and effect relationship bridges the gap between my appointed topic of study, the socio-political and economic influence and its related impacts on human health which Ava Gould is covering. Reference to specific lawsuits that took place will be a valuable starting point to looking further into the development of these legal processes relating to air pollution legislation and the implementation of environmental policies.
The methods were not mentioned, but it is evident that the piece is produced based on historical accounts that have been heavily documented. This has limited the piece to an event-based synthesis opposed to providing concrete data or citizen accounts. This is attributed to the associated weaknesses of the resource as well as its lack of reviewers which may lead to misinformation or informal delivery. Although, it is a good overview of air pollution that prompts further investigation of the mentioned specific events that occurred. There was great mention of the related disciplines allowing for an all encompassing depiction strengthening the resources ability to reflect the ‘wicked’ nature of the problem.
Popular Media
Wormington, J. (2022). Japan’s new rights guidelines could help clean up car industry. Human Rights Watch. https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/10/11/japans-new-rights-guidelines-could-help-clean-car-industry
Human Rights Watch has published several segments on environmental issues in Japan and highlighted the ways in which it is of threat or concern for social prosperity. This particular segment mentions the dangers related to the transition to electric vehicles. Japan was described as “gradually embracing the transition” despite coal heavy mining practices used to make cars we are very familiar with such as Toyota or Mitsubishi. Additionally, individuals are being removed from their own land to pursue mining for aluminum and other sought after materials. This is an important article especially as I continue to do research on Japan’s green innovation and to not be blinded by the less advertised effects and propagate how it will reduce carbon emissions. This is not to devalue this stride for air quality improvement but more so a reminder that grey literature captures other angles that government documents or acclaimed worlds are not willing to defend.
Their methodology consists mainly of gathering information virtually as well as “field investigations, interviewing victims and witnesses to put the human story front and center of our reporting and advocacy” (Human Rights Watch, 2023). Human Rights Watch is an internationally accepted and reputable resource to learn more about the social dimensions to global problems. This article was very honest in delivery by mentioning specific car brands or empty promises made to improve the ethical concerns along their supply chain. I was however underwhelmed by the length of the article and could have expanded in a few areas. My recommendation would maybe include interviews from those who got pushed off their land. This would solidify their field-based model and improve the overall ethos.
Multimedia
The World Air Quality Index Project. (2025). Suginami, Izumi-3, Tokyo, Japan Air Pollution: Real-time Air Quality Index (AQI). Aqicn.org. https://aqicn.org/station/japan-tokyo-izumi-3-suginami/#/z/5
This website is an excellent, reliable source of data on the air quality in Japan. It is a real-time, interactive map that updates every few minutes and displays the air quality index of different areas throughout Japan (as well as the rest of the world). Further, it breaks down what the values mean by showing the active concentrations of different pollutants such as PM, O3, and N02. Along with the interactive map displaying data, it also provides the air quality forecast for the week, the historical data regarding different PM concentrations in the air, the daily air quality distribution, as well as providing information as to where the recording stations are located and background context on what the pollutants are. The data for this website is based off the 50,000 air quality monitoring stations throughout the world and this “World Air Quality Index Project” is partnered with a huge list of Environmental Protection Agencies across the globe.
This website will be extremely useful for connecting current PM2.5 levels in Japan and the health impacts it can have on vulnerable people as there is a warning that appears when levels are high that describes which types of people may be at risk (i.e., elderly, infants, pregnant women). Also, because it is a map of the world, it shows the air quality index and pollutant concentrations (including PM2.5) for neighboring countries such as Korea which, can be seen having significantly higher concentrations compared to Japan. This means that this map will also be useful in explaining the contribution of neighboring countries on Japan's PM2.5 levels.
Data Sources
World Health Organization. (2024). Ambient air pollution attributable deaths. Www.who.int. https://www.who.int/data/gho/data/indicators/indicator-details/GHO/ambient-air-pollution-attributable-deaths
This website provides up to date data on several topics related to air pollution concentrations in countries across the world. Specifically, one of the datasets is on the attributable deaths of ambient air pollution in Japan. This section breaks down the annual number of deaths according to the cause of deaths such as stroke, respiratory infections, lung cancer, all of which are related to exposure to PM concentrations. This chart also divides the numbers into categories based on sex such as female, male, or both sexes and does so for each year from 2019 to 2010 (for this specific chart). Along with this data, the website provides datasets on a range of topics related to air pollution and offers data for every country. Similarly, they offer different ways to visualize the data such as graphs, tables, and maps which combined with the ability to select what countries you want to see, makes it easy to compare PM2.5 levels if Japan with other countries. This website is extremely valuable as the World Health Organization is globally recognized for their data on health-related topics such as the health impacts of air pollution, thus making it a reliable source of information for our blog. Their detailed data that is shown in multiple visualizations makes it easy to see how PM2.5 is contributing to health issues and deaths in Japan.
Agency for Natural Resources and Energy. (2011). Mandating the best energy-efficient appliances Japan’s Top Runner programme. In Low Carbon Green Growth Roadmap for Asia and the Pacific. https://www.unescap.org/sites/default/files/29.%20CS-Japan-Top-Runner-programme.pdf
Agency for Natural Resources and Energy. (2023). Overview of Basic Hydrogen Strategy. https://www.meti.go.jp/shingikai/enecho/shoene_shinene/suiso_seisaku/pdf/20230606_4.pdf
Air Pollution Control Act—English—Japanese law translation. (n.d.). https://www.japaneselawtranslation.go.jp/en/laws/view/3561/en#:~:text=Article%201The%20purpose%20of,of%20factories%20and%20places%20of
Air pollution impacts an aging society. (n.d.). EurekAlert!. Retrieved February 13, 2025, from https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/1072911
Akhbarizadeh, R., Dobaradaran, S., Amouei Torkmahalleh, M., Saeedi, R., Aibaghi, R., & Faraji Ghasemi, F. (2021). Suspended fine particulate matter (PM2.5), microplastics (MPs), and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in air: Their possible relationships and health implications. Environmental Research, 192, 110339. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2020.110339
Allen, J. (2019, August 19). How Japan is tackling pollution. AZoCleantech. https://www.azocleantech.com/article.aspx?ArticleID=918
Amnuaylojaroen, T., & Parasin, N. (2024). Pathogenesis of PM2.5-Related Disorders in Different Age Groups: Children, adults, and the elderly. Epigenomes, 8(2), 13. https://doi.org/10.3390/epigenomes8020013
Atsushi, K. (2019). Japan’s Industrial Revolution. Nippon. https://www.nippon.com/en/japan-topics/b06904/
Botta, E. & S. Yamasaki (2020). Policies, regulatory framework and enforcement for air quality management: The case of Japan. OECD Environment Working Papers, No. 156. OECD Publishing, Paris. https://doi.org/10.1787/b2de0bc1-en
California Air Resources Board. (2015). Inhalable particulate matter and health (PM2.5 and PM10). Ca.gov. https://ww2.arb.ca.gov/resources/inhalable-particulate-matter-and-health
Climate & Clean Air Coalition. (n.d.). Japan. Climate & Clean Air Coalition. https://www.ccacoalition.org/partners/japan
Cole, J. A. (1994). The right to demand: citizen activism and environmental politics in Japan. The Journal of Environment & Development, 3(2), 77–95. http://www.jstor.org/stable/44318047
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Ministry of the Environment, Government of Japan. (n.d.). Environmental quality standards in Japan—Air quality. Retrieved February 10, 2025, from https://www.env.go.jp/en/air/aq/aq.html
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FOE Japan. (n.d.). Cirebon and Indramayu coal-fired power plant projects, West Java, Indonesia. FOE Japan. https://www.foejapan.org/en/aid/170323.html
Frost, R. (2025). What is the Paris Agreement? A full guide to the historic climate treaty that Trump loves to hate. Euronews. https://www.euronews.com/green/2025/01/21/cop29-what-is-the-paris-agreement-and-how-will-countries-be-held-to-account-in-baku
Fujikura, R., Bianchi, A., Cruz, W., & Nakamura, M. (2005). Successful air pollution control in Japan: History and implications. In Local approaches to environmental compliance: Japanese case studies and lessons for developing countries (pp.19-52). https://www.ilec.or.jp/wp-content/uploads/Local-Approaches-to-Environmental-Compliance-WB-Institute-2005.pdf
Fujitani, Y., Takahashi, K., Saitoh, K., Fushimi, A., Hasegawa, S., Kondo, Y., Tanabe, K., Takami, A., & Kobayashi, S. (2021). Contribution of industrial and traffic emissions to ultrafine, fine and coarse particles in the vicinity of industrial areas in Japan. Environmental Advances, 5, 100101–100101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envadv.2021.100101
Goto, D., Ueda, K., Ng, C. F. S., Takami, A., Ariga, T., Matsuhashi, K., & Nakajima, T. (2016). Estimation of excess mortality due to long-term exposure to PM2.5 in Japan using a high-resolution model for present and future scenarios. Atmospheric Environment (1994), 140, 320–332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2016.06.015
Hautekiet, P., Saenen, N. D., Demarest, S., Keune, H., Pelgrims, I., Van der Heyden, J., De Clercq, E. M., & Nawrot, T. S. (2022b). Air pollution in association with mental and self-rated health and the mediating effect of physical activity. Environmental Health, 21(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/s12940-022-00839-x
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Itahashi, S., Yamamura, Y., Wang, Z., & Uno, I. (2022). Returning long-range PM2. 5 transport into the leeward of East Asia in 2021 after Chinese economic recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic. Scientific Reports, 12(1), 5539. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-09388-2
Ito, A., Wakamatsu, S., Morikawa, T., & Kobayashi, S. (2021). 30 years of air quality trends in Japan. Atmosphere, 12(8), 1072. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos12081072
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Iwata, K., & Arimura, T. H. (2009). Economic analysis of Japanese air pollution regulation: An optimal retirement problem under the vehicle type regulation in the NOx– particulate matter law. Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment, 14(3), 157-167. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2008.11.009
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Kanada, M., Fujita, T., Fujii, M., & Ohnishi, S. (2013). The long-term impacts of air pollution control policy: historical links between municipal actions and industrial energy efficiency in Kawasaki City, Japan. Journal of cleaner production, 58, 92-101. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2013.04.015
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Liu, J., Li, J., & Yao, F. (2022). Source-receptor relationship of transboundary particulate matter pollution between China, South Korea and Japan: Approaches, current understanding and limitations. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science and Technology, 52(21), 3896–3920. https://doi.org/10.1080/10643389.2021.1964308
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Ministry of Economy, Trade, and Industry. (2023). Basic Hydrogen Strategy. https://www.meti.go.jp/shingikai/enecho/shoene_shinene/suiso_seisaku/pdf/20230606_5.pdf
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Onishi, K., Yumimoto, K., Okuda, T., Fukuike, A., Maki, T., Nojima, M., Shinoda, M., Nakayama, T., Kurozawa, Y., Yamagata, Z., & Kurosaki, Y. (2025). Transboundary air pollution in coastal urban area in Japan: Transport model and positive matrix factorization analysis for SPM-PM2.5 and PM2.5. Urban Climate, 59, 102237. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.uclim.2024.102237.
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Shaw, D. (2009). The way forward? Shinto and a 21st century Japanese ecological attitude. In Nature, Space and the Sacred, Chapter 23, (pp. 413-424). Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315248318
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