Introduction

This case study explores why PM 2.5 air pollution in Japan is a wicked problem.

In Framing the Problem, we ranked the causes and resulting problems by severity of impact. In Governance, we delve into the complex political and economic dynamics involved and finally, in Moving Forward, we present some of the solutions to address the issue through various governing structures, political interests, and initiatives to monitor and combat this pollution.

What is a "Wicked Problem"?

Wicked problems are issues that are complex and difficult to solve due to their interconnectedness with other problems, dynamic state, and lack of clear solution.

Four features of wicked problems as defined by Professor Benjamin Cashore are:

1. Time is running out 3. We are the cause and solution

2. No central authority 4. Policies are inconsistent with science

(Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, 2020)

The topic in this case study is a perfect example of a wicked problem because of its complexity, transboundary nature and involvement of multiple stakeholders including foreign actors, industry, governments, and citizens.

Additionally, balancing economic costs with the health impacts of PM2.5 pollution is made even more challenging by Japan's dense population, as the difficulty of imposing a monetary cost on addressing the issue leaves citizens vulnerable. These interconnected factors make PM2.5 pollution resistant to simple solutions, requiring adaptive and collaborative approaches.

Finally, certain scientific uncertainties (regarding the mechanisms leading to the formation of PM2.5, along with the contribution of individual sources to total concentration levels) make it difficult to identify the specific individual sources of PM 2.5 (Ministry of Environment, n.d.).

Figure 1: Diagram representing PM2.5 composition and size, as compared to human hair, PM10, and fine beach sand. (United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), n.d.)

What is PM 2.5?

PM stands for particulate matter.
2.5 references their size, at 2.5 micrometers, as seen in Figure 1.
These fine microscopic particles come from various sources (ex: manufacturing sector, organic compounds, metals.) and are easily inhaled (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, n.d.).
Unlike other types of air pollution, which are usually linked to elements (e.g., carbon or sulfur), PMs create Particle pollution—a blend of particles from various sources. (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, n.d.).

Figure 2: Google Map showing East Asian nations, including Japan.

Where Exactly is Japan?

Japan, an East Asian island nation and archipelago, shares significant geopolitical and environmental ties with its neighbouring countries, in particular, China and South Korea (Figure 2).
These two countries are key in this case study, regarding PM 2.5 data collection.
It is crucial to note that Japan is located downwind of both China and South Korea (Figure 2).
Limitation: it should be noted that a limitation of the data collection in our case study was due to the unavailability of any data from North Korea.

Stakeholder Overview

Foregein Actors

Neighboring countries China and South Korea are stakeholders in the issue of air pollution in Japan, as their emissions affect the pollution levels in Japan. This makes them key actors in efforts to control and reduce emissions.
One of the leading factors making this topic a wicked problem is its complex transboundary nature.

(Xie & Liao, 2022)

Industries

Having a direct role in the emission of PM2.5 and other pollutants, industries such as the energy conversion, steel, and transportation industries are important stakeholders regarding air pollution in Japan.
Efforts to reduce PM2.5 emissions will primarily fall on the actions of these industries.

(Fujitani et al., 2021)

Government

Being responsible for the development, implementation, and enforcement of legislation and regulations, government bodies are central stakeholders regarding air pollution and efforts to reduce emissions.
Includes Chinese and South Korean governments.

(Botta & Yamasaki, 2020)

Citizens

Citizen stakeholders are those directly impacted by or interested in policies and regulations relating to air pollution and emission levels.
They have the ability to influence decisions made by the government and industries if said decisions do not align with their values and needs.

(Riley et al., 2021)

Figure 3: Real-time Air Quality Index Visual Map showing Air Pollution levels in Japan along with other East Asian countries. (The World Air Quality Index Project, n.d.)

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