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Lee Kam Hung; Zaheer Ali Akbar; Lam Kit Ying; Chau Pui Faye
What is discourse analysis? We first have to know what is discourse. The word discourse comes from the Latin word discursus and the French word discours which means running away but means the flow of a conversation (Jones, 2018, p. 2). So to say that discourse analysis is a comprehensive approach to study of how language in use, examining how language functions in specific contexts, how meaning is constructed and how social and cultural factors shape communication. Discourse makes use of syntactic structures to convey and organize meaning beyond the sentence level.
1.Language and discourse
1.1 Language and discourse in our daily life
Introduction
We use language to communicate, express our feelings and needs in different mediums. Meanwhile, discourse refers to specific ways in which language is used in different contexts, such as daily conversation with our friends or family. Yet, to understand what is discourse analysis, we need to understand what is language.
1.1.1 Everyday Communication
Latief, M. A. (2009) pointed out that language is ambiguous, situated in social context, displays our identity and could be used in different modes. The word choice, and other different elements are used in dialogues which could be essential to an effective interaction with others, that is display in our daily life.
1.1.2 Social Interactions and Relationships
Our relationship and social discourse are shaped by language and discourse. The way we speak, the words we choose, and the conversational strategies we employ all influence how we are perceived and how we perceive others. Language and discourse in certain ways enable us to navigate social norms and expectations, develop and uphold relationships, and express closeness or respect.
1.1.3 Cultural and identity expression
The way we speak or wording expresses our identity and cultural background, for example how Japanese people speak in English could differ from native speakers, they struggle to learn sentence structures and utterance style. Therefore, Language and discourse provide a means for expressing our cultural heritage, values, and beliefs, as well as shaping our individual and group identities.
As Japanese is also a highly contextual language, subjects or topics can be left out.
1.1.4 Influence and Persuasion
In order to gain trust, influence on others, discourse analysis can benefit firms, relationships and conveying messages. Discourse analysis helps us understand how language is used to construct narratives, evoke emotions, and persuade audiences. Being aware of these persuasive techniques allows us to critically evaluate and engage with the messages we encounter. An example of how a lawyer sounds convincing and defending Johnny Depp.
1.2 language variation and discourse
1.2.1 Regional Dialects and Discourse
Language variation as factors that affect discourse analysis, that could alter meanings in conversations or cause confusion, awkwardness. Discourse patterns and communication styles can be impacted by regional variations in language. Dialogue as below as example:
man: Ayo, give me a rubber!
man2: WHAT?
man: You heard me! Give me a rubber!
man2 proceeded to give a condom to the couple.
women: He said a rubber not a condom!
man: Oh! I thought you guys wanted to… you know…
couple: What? We are sketching!
A brief explanation on how regional dialects differ universally. Pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammar, influence the way individuals express themselves and interact within a specific geographic area. Analysing language variation in discourse allows for a better understanding of how regional identity and cultural norms shape communication practices.
1.2.2 Sociolects and Discourse
Sociolects refer to language varieties associated with specific social groups or communities. Sociolect variation, which is influenced by socioeconomic class, ethnicity, and age, can have an effect on discourse. Social groupings may have various discourse techniques and communication styles due to distinct sociolects' usage of varied syntax, vocabulary, and speech patterns.
1.2.3 Language Contact and Discourse
Language contact is the interaction and impact between speakers of two or more languages or varieties. This can result in a multilingual environment where vocabulary borrowing and code switching are common (Irimiea, 2017). Thus, examining language use in conversation provides insight into how speakers modify their communication methods, move between languages, and negotiate meaning in multilingual settings.
Researchers can investigate the dynamic relationship between language diversity and discourse practices by investigating regional dialects, sociolects, idiolects, and language interaction.
1.3 Critical Discourse Analysis of Media and Political Discourse
Critical discourse analysis (CDA) studies the ways in which political discourse and the media create and perpetuate power structures and ideological viewpoints
(Van Dijk, 2015). It consists of 4 main concepts and purposes that are worth diving into.
1.3.1 Power and Ideology
Power and ideology could be displayed through some discursive strategies, language choices, that helps politicians or influencers maintain social hierarchies, and influence public opinion. Kwon(2013) mentioned that many politicians construct their figure by strong speeches through some discursive strategies, that gives me firm image to public.
1.3.2 Construction of Social Reality
Media and political discourse construct social reality by framing events, issues, and identities. CDA examines how language shapes public perceptions, defines social problems, and creates "us" versus "them" divisions that influence public opinion and social identities.
1.3.3 Manipulation and Persuasion
Media and political discourse employ various linguistic strategies to manipulate and persuade audiences. Investigation on how language elicits emotional responses, shapes public attitudes, and employs rhetorical devices, persuasive techniques, and framing to influence public opinion and shape political debates. It exposes hidden agendas and persuasive strategies in media and political texts.
1.3.4 Resistance and Counter-Discourse
It also looks into how belittled groups and social movements use counter-discourse to question dominant ideologies and power structures. This brings a spotlight on how marginalized voices use discursive practices to challenge power dynamics and advocate for social change. An example:
1.4 language and discourse categories
Language and discourse can be divided into different dimensions and categories.
1.4.1 Linguistic Dimensions
Phonetics and phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics are all linguistic dimensions.
1.4.2 Sociolinguistic Categories
Language variation, attitudes and prestige, language and identity, and language policy and planning are all investigated in sociolinguistic categories.
1.4.3 Applied Categories
Conversational analysis, narrative analysis, critical discourse analysis, and genre analysis are all types of discourse analysis.
Political discourse, media discourse, language and education, and language and professional communication are examples of applied categories.
1.4.4 Cross-Cultural Categories
Intercultural communication, translation or interpreting are examples of cross-cultural categories.
These categories serve as a framework for researchers to specialize in specific areas or combine multiple categories for a comprehensive understanding of language and discourse.
2. Building Connections in Discourse
2.1 Defining Coherence in Discourse Analysis
While conducting a macro-level top-down analysis of a text (Yule, 2006). Including six key concepts for instance, genre as in spoken and written, top-level structure, organization structure, audience/ readers and purpose.
2.1.1 Thematic Development
First, a coherent conversation frequently proceeds thematically. It presents and expands on subjects, offers pertinent data, and stays on topic throughout. The ideas should be presented in the discourse in a cohesive and coherent manner, with a logical and well-organized structure.
2.1.2 Logical and Semantic Relations
The construction of logical and semantic connections between the discourse's various sections. Cause-and-effect, comparison-contrast, temporal sequence, and spatial organization are some examples of these relationships. It is simpler to follow and understand the discourse. The structure that connects cause and effect is called cause and effect. Phrases and words that indicate a cause and effect relationship like "because," "consequently," and "as a result" (Pople, 1998).
For example, the heading of the newspaper “Landslides, flash floods after continuous rain” shows
the relationship of cause-effect. The cause (continuous rain) and the effect (Landslides, flash floods).
2.1.3 Contextual Knowledge and Inference
Discourse coherence depends on the ability to draw conclusions and on shared prior knowledge. To fill in the blanks and make sense of the discourse, speakers and listeners rely on their global knowledge, cultural norms, and contextual details. The conversation is more coherent overall because of this shared knowledge and inference-making.
2.1.4 Pragmatic Coherence
The relationship between the discourse and the communicative intentions is referred to as pragmatic coherence. When the discourse is in line with the participants' objectives, expectations, and common communication goals, coherence is attained. Pragmatic coherence can be achieved through discourse markers, politeness techniques, and conversational implicatures.
2.2 The Importance of Coherence in Effective Communication
Effective communication in a variety of contexts, whether it be spoken, written, or digital, depends heavily on coherence.
2.2.1 Clarity
Coherence guarantees that the intended audience will be able to understand and comprehend the message being conveyed. Receivers find it simpler to follow and understand a message without difficulty or ambiguity when ideas and information are logically connected and arranged.
2.2.2 Comprehension
Coherence facilitates message comprehension which make easier understanding the communication's main points, the connections between disparate pieces of information, and its meaning. This makes it easier to comprehend and interpret the message effectively.
The written genre shares common traits with regard to language usage, text structure, and communication objectives. Writing traditions, cultures, and situations can all influence the types of writing that are produced.
Examples for written genre:
Reports
Articles
Letters
Advertisements
2.2.3 Effective and Smooth Information Exchange
Effective transmission and reception of information is ensured by coherent communication, which fosters effective and efficient communication.
The spoken genre are the subsets of oral communication diverse speaking communities, cultures, and circumstances can have diverse spoken genres.
Examples for spoken genre:
Daily conversation
Lectures
Broadcasts
2.3 Techniques to Improve Coherence in Writing
Improving coherence in writing is essential for conveying ideas clearly and effectively.
2.3.1 Organize your ideas
Create an outline or a plan to organize your thoughts before you begin writing. Ascertain the primary ideas you wish to share and the sensible sequence in which to present them. This will give your writing a structure and guarantee that your ideas are coherent.
2.3.2 Provide clear topic sentences
Every paragraph should start with a distinct topic sentence that introduces the main idea of the paragraph. This makes it easier for readers to comprehend each paragraph's main idea and connection to the main subject. The main idea of the paragraph should be supported and elaborated upon in each sentence that follows.
2.3.3 Provide sufficient explanations and examples
Ensuring include enough examples and explanations when introducing new or complex ideas to make it easy for readers to follow along. By doing this, you can make sure that your writing makes sense and doesn't leave readers perplexed or curious.
2.4 Evaluating Coherence in Texts
Evaluating coherence in texts involves assessing the clarity, logical flow, and overall effectiveness of how ideas are presented and connected.
2.4.1 Overall Organization
Evaluate the text's general arrangement and structure. A clear introduction, body paragraphs that expand on the major ideas, and a conclusion that restates the main ideas should all be present. An easily followed logical flow of ideas characterizes a well-organized text.
2.4.2 Logical Flow
Examining connections and transitions between ideas in the text. Verify whether a smooth flow of information from one sentence or paragraph to another. To make sure that ideas are presented coherently, look for logical transitions such as cause-and-effect relationships, chronological order, or comparison-contrast.
Top-level structures apply evidence of an author's pattern of relationships at the broadest possible scale, including four possible structures – comparisons, cause and effect, problems and solutions, and lists and descriptions.
Example for comparisons structure:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5xhB3xzSXD4
This video of debate introduces an argumentative speech. The structure for comparing ideas and views, which is commonly seen in argumentative speech or writing.
Example for cause and effect structure:
'A young boy named Ethan consistently practiced playing the piano for hours every day. Ethan's skills improved, and he won first place in a prestigious music competition, earning him a scholarship to a renowned music school. '
Here shows a short captured story which it exhibit the cause 'A young boy named Ethan consistently practiced playing the piano for hours every day.' and the effect 'Ethan's skills improved, and he won first place in a prestigious music competition, earning him a scholarship to a renowned music school. '
Example for problems and solution structure:
The structure "problems and solutions" produces a description of the problem and the concepts that surround a solution (Bartlett, 2003).
This advertisement indicates both the problem(extra hungry) and the solution(eating snickers).
Example for lists and descriptions:
The recipe shows the organization on a text through listing out and describing information in an orderly manner.
2.4.3 Audience Understanding
When assessing the material, it is important to consider the audience's level of comprehension. Think about whether the explanations, language, and level of complexity are appropriate for the target audience. The target audience should be able to access and comprehend a cohesive text. The target audience is determined by the writing's or communication's particular context and goal.
2.4.4 Overall Effectiveness
Evaluating the text's overall success in accomplishing its goal. Determine whether the language successfully conveys the intended message, maintains the reader's interest, and has the desired impact. A cohesive writing should leave an impression on the reader and clearly convey its ideas.
3. Understanding the logical flow in texts
3.1 The Role of Cohesion in Text Structuring
Cohesive texts exhibit logical flow, aiding organization, transitions, and guiding readers through conceptual shifts. They facilitate reference and substitution, connecting ideas and minimizing repetition when introducing new or revisited concepts. Additionally, cohesion functions as signposts, utilizing section markers, headings, and subheadings to navigate text organization and enhance reader comprehension through evident clues and interconnected ideas.
3.2 Cohesion Devices in English: Reference, Ellipsis, Substitution, Conjunction, and Lexical Cohesion
Cohesiveness enhances coherence and connectivity in writing, improving organization, clarity, and the reader's understanding of relationships between sections. There are six key concepts below.
3.2.1 Conjunction
When joining words, phrases, and clauses within or between sentences, conjunctions are essential. It connects disparate elements to illustrate connections between them.
Example
Example
You can either have pizza or pasta for dinner.
An additive conjunction conveys the idea of fusing together disparate concepts or elements. By joining similar or related elements, additive conjunctions improve the flow of ideas and give a sentence or text a sense of accumulation or expansion.
Example
Example
She is intelligent and hardworking.
Contrastive conjunctions highlight differences, contradictions, or alternative viewpoints, balancing, emphasizing contrasting information, or introducing unexpected ideas.
Example
Example
The weather was hot, but we still went for a walk.
Causative conjunction link clauses and can be used in the middle of a sentence.
Example: I don’t enjoy TV, so I have chosen to read tonight.
Causative Conjunction used at the beginning of a sentence to refer to the sentence before.
Example: I dropped my watch on the floor. Consequently, it is broken.
By connecting ideas or events in a temporal sequence, sequential conjunctions ensure a logical and coherent flow of information.
Example
Example
First, we need to create a detailed project plan.
3.2.2 Reference
Anaphoric reference refers back to a previous noun or pronoun, avoiding repetition by referencing earlier information.
Anaphoric reference refers back to a previous noun or pronoun, avoiding repetition by referencing earlier information.
For example, ‘John is an excellent musician. He plays the guitar, piano, and drums.’
‘he’ is an anaphoric reference to ‘John,’.
A cataphoric reference foreshadows or prepares the reader for information to be discussed later in the text.
For example, ‘It is very playful. My cat loves to chase its own tail.’
‘it’ is a cataphoric reference that points forward to "my cat,"
Exophoric allusion refers to external references, relying on shared knowledge for understanding between writer and reader.
For example, "Did you see that? It was amazing!"
"that" and "it" are exophoric references, referring to external knowledge assumed by both speaker and listener.
Nominal substitution adds diversity by replacing a noun with a similar-sounding alternative, while maintaining allusions.
Nominal substitution adds diversity by replacing a noun with a similar-sounding alternative, while maintaining allusions.
Example:
Original sentence: "Do you like chocolate ice cream?"
Response in substitution: "Yes, I like it.".
Clausal substitution is the process of changing a clause or phrase that expresses the same idea with another.
Clausal substitution is the process of changing a clause or phrase that expresses the same idea with another.
Example:
Original statement: "Some people say that money can't buy happiness."
Respond with substitution: "That may be true, but it can certainly make life easier.".
The process of replacing an adverbial phrase or adverb with one that has a similar meaning is known as adverbial substitution.
The process of replacing an adverbial phrase or adverb with one that has a similar meaning is known as adverbial substitution.
Example:
Original sentence: "Does he play tennis?"
Respond with substitution: "Yes, he does.".
3.2.3 Ellipsis
Clause ellipsis is the removal of all but a fragment of a clause from a sentence. The context clarifies the meaning of the omitted clause.
Example:
Original question is "Who is going to the concert?"
Respond with ellipsis “John is.”.
Ellipsis is a conversational tool that encourages natural speech flow and prevents needless repetition. It is also useful for improving the fluency and conciseness of written texts, especially informal ones.
3.2.4 Lexical cohesion
Throughout a text, using the same words or phrases repeatedly strengthens the connections between ideas and fosters a sense of cohesion by repetition.
Example: "I love studying Maths. Maths fascinates me because it helps me understand the difficulty of life.".
It is possible to avoid using repetitive language while still communicating the intended meaning by using synonyms or words with similar meanings.
Example, "It is important to preserve our forests. We need to protect these valuable ecosystems.".
According to Antonymy, there can be cohesion when opposing ideas or concepts are contrasted with antonyms, or words with opposite meanings.
Example: "The North Pole is extremely cold, while the equator is incredibly hot." .
3.3 Enhancing Cohesion in Writing: Practical Strategies
Pronouns and referencing create cohesion by linking related ideas. They eliminate noun repetition by referring back to previously mentioned subjects or objects.
Pronouns and referencing create cohesion by linking related ideas. They eliminate noun repetition by referring back to previously mentioned subjects or objects.
Example: instead of repeating a noun like "The dog," you can use the pronoun "it" to refer back to the dog.
Conjunctions like "and," "but," and "or," as well as adverbs and phrases that illustrate the connections between ideas, are examples of cohesive devices. These techniques support the logical construction of paragraphs and sentences.
Using consistent grammatical patterns and structures for important parts of a sentence or paragraph enhances coherence and clarity in your writing.
Using consistent grammatical patterns and structures for important parts of a sentence or paragraph enhances coherence and clarity in your writing.
For example, "She likes reading, swimming, and hiking" uses parallel structure by applying the same verb form to each item in the list.
3.4 Evaluating Cohesion in Texts
Cohesive texts exhibit logical flow, aiding organization, transitions, and guiding readers through conceptual shifts. They facilitate reference and substitution, connecting ideas and minimizing repetition when introducing new or revisited concepts. Cohesion also serves as a guidepost, using section markers, headings, and subheadings to navigate text organization and enhance reader comprehension through evident clues and interconnected ideas.
4.Gender and Discourse
4.1 Definition of 'Gender Discourse' and its meaning
In everyday life, we often use gender pronouns when communicating with others. It covers dialogue, debate, stories, and gender expression in a variety of contexts, including everyday conversations, media, education, law, and public policy.
For example
For example
When people mention girls or boys, they will use pronouns like ‘he’ or ‘she’, they will assume that the gender of the person by the perceived characteristics.
For example
For example
in the movie ‘Buffy the vampire slayer’, the girl knocked down Spike and told Buffy that ‘ If he wakes up, tell your boyfriend to watch his mouth.’ Then, Buffy told the girl that ‘He is not my boyfriend’. In this dialogue, the pronouns ‘ He’ refer to Spike which is the boy. When people watch this movie, they will also know the gender of Spike is a male, and also know that “he” in that utterance means Spike.
0:14-0:24
4.2 The role of language in constructing gender
4.2 The role of language in constructing gender
Many languages use gender-specific terms that can perpetuate stereotypes. In this picture, we will use the terms ‘waiter’ and ‘waitress’ to call the men and women in the photo. Job titles have always had a male and a female version (such as ‘actor’ and ‘actress’), and some languages have gendered nouns. In everyday communication, we already adopt and make use of gendered nouns.
For example : Like animals we have bulls for cattle and cows for cattle. In family relationships : you will call your dad as father but not mother.
4.3.1 The portrayal of gender in the media
4.3.1 The portrayal of gender in the media
In traditional media, stereotypes are often used to present the image of different gender. For example, in the movie ‘Pearl’, the girl- Pearl who is very emotional and screaming at the men. However, the men look more calm and unemotional. This will affect how the audience has different perceptions and expectations of each gender. This will lead to limited representation since these movie characters cannot represent all the emotional experiences and expressions that all gender will have. It may lead to people who are not these stereotypes feeling unseen or misunderstood by others.
0:14-0:31
4.3.2 The portrayal of gender in the media
4.3.2 The portrayal of gender in the media
Another example is the ‘Mad Men’ series which the drama is set in the 1960s, where men hold the power and make important decisions, and lead action. While women mostly play supportive roles like secretaries. In this scene, Roger keeps telling Peggy what to do and he says the line that ‘ I can make you do it for nothing, I’m the boss.' While on the other hand, Peggy is just asking ‘What do you want ?’ and keep writing down what Roger has said. This shows that women are frequently depicted in nurturing, supportive, or objectified roles, while men are shown in positions of power or action-oriented roles. Further increase the misunderstanding of the audience to each gender.
1:10-1:20
4.4 Education plays a powerful role in shaping gender perceptions
4.4 Education plays a powerful role in shaping gender perceptions
Also, Even guidelines regarding dress code or behaviour can sometimes reinforce gender stereotypes. In the picture, for example, we see that the boys wear uniforms.
The girls wear dresses. This makes it clear that strict dress codes can help to identify femininity and masculinity.
For example, in most history books, the national leaders of different countries are always men, but not women, such as George Washington - the first president of the USA and a key factor in the revolution, Martin Luther King and Albert Einstein. It is mostly male characters who are mentioned, but women are not sufficiently represented in the textbook. This can lead to a misconception among students that men have made a more important contribution to society.
References
Bartlett, B. (2003). Valuing the Situation: A Referential Outcome for Top-level Structurers. In B. Bartlett, F. Bryer, & D. Roebuck (Eds.), Reimagining practice: Researching change: volume 1 (pp. 16–37). Nathan, Qld.: Griffith University, School of Cognition, Language and Special Education.
EAP Foundation (2022). Cohesion & Coherence. Retrieved from https://www.eapfoundation.com/writing/cohesion/
Irimiea, S. B. (2017). Professional Discourse as social practice. European Journal of Interdisciplinary Studies, 9(1), 108. https://doi.org/10.26417/ejis.v9i1.p108-119
Jones, R. H. (2018). Discourse analysis:A resource book for students (2nd ed.). Routledge.
Kwon, W., Clarke, I., & Wodak, R. (2013). Micro‐level discursive strategies for constructing shared views around strategic issues in team meetings. Journal of Management Studies, 51(2), 265–290. https://doi.org/10.1111/joms.12036
Latief, M. A. (2009). Assumption and hypothesis in language learning research. KARYA DOSEN Fakultas Sastra UM.
Pople, I. (1998). An introduction to text and discourse analysis, Stanley Thornes (Publishers) Ltd.
Toppr (2013). Conjunctions: Definitions, Types, and Examples. Retrieved from https://www.toppr.com/guides/english/conjunction/introduction-to-conjunctions/
Van Dijk, T. A. (2015). Critical discourse analysis. The Handbook of Discourse Analysis, 466–485. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781118584194.ch22
Yule, G. (2006). The study of language (3rd ed.). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Which of the following best defines discourse analysis?
a) The study of written texts
b) The analysis of spoken language only
c) The examination of language use in social contexts
d) The study of individual word meanings
2. What are some key language features examined in discourse analysis?
a) Syntax and morphology
b) Phonetics and phonology
c) Vocabulary and grammar
d) Semantics and pragmatics
3. How does discourse analysis contribute to our understanding of social phenomena?
a) By focusing solely on individual language use
b) By uncovering underlying meanings and power dynamics in communication
c) By studying language in isolation from social contexts
d) By analyzing sentence structures and word choices
4. What role does context play in discourse analysis?
a) Context has no influence on discourse analysis.
b) Context helps to understand how language use is shaped by social interactions.
c) Context is irrelevant in analyzing language use.
d) Context refers to the specific words used in a discourse.
5. Critical discourse analysis emphasizes:
a) The study of historical texts and ancient languages.
b) Analyzing language features without considering power relations.
c) Understanding how language reflects and reinforces social inequalities.
d) Focusing on individual sentence structures rather than broader discursive formations.
6. In which field of study can discourse analysis be applied?
a) Mathematics
b) Chemistry
c) Sociology
d) Music
7. What are discursive formations in discourse analysis?
a) Patterns and structures observed in language use within a specific social context.
b) The study of individual words and their meanings.
c) The analysis of non-verbal communication only.
d) The study of language sounds and pronunciation.
8. Which of the following describes a media studies application of discourse analysis?
a) Analyzing literary texts
b) Examining advertising techniques
c) Studying geological formations
d) Investigating mathematical equations
9.Which of the following phrases best describes the organized behaviors and speech patterns that create and maintain gender inequality and gender identities?
a. Gender roles
b. Gender discrimination
c. Gender discourse
d. Gender stereotypes
10. Which term refers to the way language is used to create meaning by combining words, phrases, and sentences?
a. Grammar
b. Syntax
c. Semantics
d. Discourse
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