Chapter 04: Functional Grammar

Rai Suhana, Yau Tsz Ching, Tang Wing Lam, Liu Tsan Wan

What is Functional Grammar? The study of language with an emphasis on the communicative purposes and functions of linguistic parts is known as functional grammar. It looks at the various ways that linguistic forms and structures are used in communication. Functional grammar looks beyond sentence patterns to understand how language is utilized to describe social connections, transmit meaning, and accomplish communicative objectives. It takes into account the conversation, the context, and the speakers' or writers' objectives. Furthermore, functional grammar offers insights into how language influences and mirrors social structures and human interaction by examining the functions of language.

1.Overviewing functional grammar 

1.1 Functional grammar involved to our daily life

Introduction

Human communication is a crucial life issue for us   spending whole lifetime to learn about, but have you wondered how Functional grammar is involved in our daily life? It is undoubtedly related to our daily life which can be split into various concepts helping us familiarize how it is relevant to our daily.  

1.1.1 Effective Communication 

Functional grammar provides insights into how language is used to convey meaning and achieve communicative goals which assists humans communicate with others effectively by choosing appropriate statements, going out ideas coherently and addressing individual emotions directly which we defined effective communication.

1.1.2  Interpretation of Message

After receiving another's statement the following step will be to interpret and understand the contents. In this stage functional grammar plays a role analysis hidden information, any different relationships accurately and responds to it appropriately. 

1.1.3 Social Interaction 

Social interaction is the way strengthening the bonding between people. It is about people addressing and expressing opinions politely, Humans may navigate social interactions effectively and present the greatest by arousing awareness of functional aspects of language use. 

1.1.4 Writing and Reading

Functional grammar provides unique insights into text structure, how information is organised, and cohesion is achieved. It spotlights improving individual integrating skill and allows them to conclude the main ideas, sentences, relationships, and summary purpose of the article.

1.1.5 Language Teaching and Learning 

Functional grammar provides insights into how language works which helps both lecturers and learners enrich their language acquisition process. It is essential to understand the principles of languages which may enlighten a lecturer's tailor-made teaching materials to focus on real-life communication, also beneficial to learner developing communicative competence.

1.2 Creators of functional grammar 

Halliday’s work on SFL revolutionized by understanding of language, emphasizing its nature and the role it plays in social interaction. 

His significant contribution to linguistics is the development of the theory of systemic functional linguistics (SFL).  

SFL serves three main functions including ideational (representing meaning), interpersonal (relating to social interaction) and textual (organizing languages as a coherent system) examining how language choices and patterns reflect to human’s activity.

1.3 Functional grammar evolution 

1.3.1 Systemic Functional Linguistics (SFL)

Halliday as a language community role model who proposed a comprehensive framework called the Systemic Functional Model. It emphasises the functional aspects of language and the relationship between language structure and its use in different social contexts such as establishing relationships, negotiating meaning, expressing attitudes, and constructing reality.

SFL provides a scope for people analysing and describing language. Overall, it can be divided by 3 methodologies including the rank scale, system networks, and the principle of congruence. Usage of SFL has been extensively applied and expanded upon by various linguists and researchers in their opus, it is effortlessly found SFL through Critical Discourse Analysis, language teaching, genre analysis, systemic functional semiotics, and computational linguistics.

To simplify, those 3 methodologies related to register system which called metafunction including ideational meaning, interpersonal meaning and textual meaning.

1.4 Functional Grammar categories 

1.4.1 Difference between Traditional grammar and Functional grammar

SFL focuses on how languages function to convey meaning in various contexts and roles those diverse elements leading grammar works. Traditional grammar  approaching the different components within in sentence but functional approaching the communication effect, the feature of the social context. 

Figure 1 Teaching grammar in middle and upper primary grades http://teachgrammar.weebly.com/traditional-vs-functional-grammar.html

This chart is about the value of both traditional grammar and functional grammar both are integrated into the current English curriculum and complement each other (Winch, 2010). 

Figure 2 ELT Concourse teacher training

https://www.eltconcourse.com/training/inservice/lexicogrammar/sfg_introduction.html

1.4.2 Metafunctions

Figure 5 In depth  of the metafunctions 

https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Stratification-and-metafunctions-in-the-systemic-functional-linguistic-framework_fig1_32314375

 2. Experiential Meaning Components 

In SFL, the grammar system is used to enable the synthesis of these meta functions, which serves as a structure for our language. The clause is a configuration of a process, participants involved in it and any attendant circumstances (Halliday and Matthiessen, 2004:169) 

Figure 6 The development of Language  

https://www.gocomics.com/search/full_results?category=comic&page=3&terms=grammar 

Figure 7 The conceptual framework of Functional Grammar 

https://uhn.ac.id/files/akademik_files/1712070831_2016_The%20Episteme%20Journal%20of%20Linguistics%20and%20Literature%20Vol%203%20No%201_5.Process%20Types%20of%20Transitivity%20System%20in%20the%20National%20Geographics%20Articles.pdf 

2.1 Participants 

First, the participants shall describe who and what is involved in the action. For example, Mary gave me flowers. “Mary” is the actor while “me” is the goal who is the recipient of the action. The participants may be people, things, feelings and events.  

2.2 Processes

Second, the process allows us to identify the doer's primary action using verbs. Further classifications include material, mental, linguistic, relational, behavioural, and existential.  

2.2.1 Material Process

Material processes illustrates the “happening” and “doing” processes which demonstrate a physical interaction between two entities. For instance, “run”, “eat".  "She cooked dinner." - the material process is "cooked.". 

Figure 8 Human Brain (Cognitive thinking) https://www.craiyon.com 

2.2.2 Mental Process

The term "mental process" indicates a cognitively procedures. The participants are senser who is undergoing the action and phenomenon is the thing experienced.   e.g. I understand the idea now.  "understand" denotes cognitive action. 

2.2.3 Verbal Process

Verbal process requires us to use the language to convey the meaning.  The participants involved are sayer, verbiage and lastly receiver. For example, “say”, “shout”, “whisper”.  

• "They discussed the issue. "discussed" denotes a verbal activity, "they" are the communicative actors and "the issue" is the subject of conversation. 

Figure 9 Differences between Attributive and Identifying Process 

https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&v=uODT5cruP90

2.2.4 Relational Process

The term "relational process" refers to a relationship's expression. Several instances include the words "be," "seem," "become". There are attribute and identifying relational process.  

• e.g., The book belongs to Sara. "belongs" refers to the relational process that connects the possessor (Sara) with the subject (the book), indicating that Sara is the book's owner. 

Attribute Relational Process 

• For example: Mary seems sad. The relational process attributes a quality (sad) to the participant (Mary). 

   Identifying Relational Process 

•  That is my house. The relational process identifies the participant (That) by specifying its membership (house). 

 2.2.5 Behavioural Process

Behavioural process refers to the action of the human beings. For example, “hunt”, “swim”. Behavor is the participant that performs or carries out the action in a sentence.  

2.2.6 Existential Process

Existential is a process that projects that something really exists. There is a book on the table. Here, “book” is the existent. Some of key words include "exist," "occur. 

2.3 Circumstances 

Lastly, circumstances provide additional information to the sentence. Circumstances can be manner, place, time, reason, condition. For example, "in the park" is a circumstance that provides information on the location of the action in the sentence "Sam kicked the ball in the park." 

2.4 Conclusion

We can better analyse sentences' structure and meaning through consideration of their roles in the participation process, procedures or circumstances. In doing so, it provides us with information on the relationships and how each element of a sentence contributes to its overall meaning. 

                                                                                                             Figure 10 Explanation on Transitive and Intransitive Verbs    https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ag6LB0-21lI

2. 5 Transitivity and Intransitivity

Transitivity is linked to the experiential function and analysis of the relationships between the participants in the process, such as the subject and the object concerned.  

Transitivity focuses on the linguistic and semantic relationship of a verb to its participants, in relation to one another. By contrast, intransitivity relates to a clause that does not contain an object. SFL observes that the different levels of transitivity can occur in verbs, which have a significant influence on the structure and organisation of clauses. 

The following are the given examples of transitivity and intransitivity. 

Transitivity  

She wrote a letter. (The verb "wrote" requires the object "a letter" to complete its meaning.)  

Intransitive  

"She laughed". (The verb "laughed" does not require an object to complete its meaning.) 

• Material process 

Transitive verb : She baked a cake. 

Process: Baked (verb) + cake (direct object). 

Intransitive verb (material process): He ran. 

Process: Ran (verb). 

Nonetheless, in relational and existential processes, there is no direct object involved. Rather, the subject and the complement are the main participants, which represent the entities being related. 

• Relational process 

Transitive verb : He became a pilot. 

Process: Became (verb) + pilot(complement). 

Intransitive verb (relational process): She is happy. 

Process: Is (verb) + happy (complement). 

• Existential process 

Transitive verb : There is a file on the table. 

Process: Is (verb) + file (complement). 

Intransitive verb (existential process): There are people in the park. 

Process: Are (verb). 

2.5.1 Conclusion 

To understand how verbs work in a sentence and how they interact with other elements of a sentence, such as objects and complements, it is helpful to understand transitivity and intransitivity.

Figure 11 The transitivity system merged with process

https://slideplayer.com/slide/800455/3/images/23/Transitivity+system.jpg

2.6 Theme and Rheme

The theme is the basis for a clause; that's what it means. The remainder of the clause is the rheme (Paltridge, 2006:145). The themes and rhemes are playing an important role to organisation and interpretation of information pursuant to clauses. 

• In a sentence such as: Yesterday, I went to the store
      

In this sentence, the theme is "Yesterday," which establishes the time frame to raise emphasis. The rheme is "I went to the store," which presents the action taken by the speaker. 

. 

2.6.1 Different Types of Themes 

• Topical Theme 

Example: "Dogs are loyal companions." (The topical theme is "dogs," as it represents the main topic of the sentence.) 

• Textual Theme 

Example: "Mary gave me a book. It is very interesting." (The textual theme is the pronoun "it," which refers to the previously mentioned book.) 

• Interpersonal Theme 

Example: "Could you pass me the salt, please?" (The interpersonal theme is the politeness marker "please) 

The topical theme is concerned with the subject or theme of a phrase, the textual theme is concerned with how information is arranged in a text, and the interpersonal theme is concerned with the social interactions, attitudes, and interactions between the speaker and the listener.  

2.6.2 Conclusion 

To conclude, the role of theme and rheme has a fundamental impact on languages' structure and comprehension, contributing to a coordinated and consistent flow of information, enabling an effective understanding and interpretation.

Figure 12 Examples of theme and rheme in table 

Textual meaning THEME CHOICES. - ppt video online download 

2.7 Passivization and Thematization 

2.7.1 Passivization  

 Passivization can be viewed as a means of highlighting the patients. Passivisation, from a functional perspective, is seen as an approach to organise information and structure messages and transform active sentence to passive.  Passivization can also be applied when the subject of an active sentence is inconsequential. 

Here are some examples. 

Active: "Sally ate the food." 

Passive: "The food was eaten by Sally." 

 The object "the food" becomes the subject, and the subject "Sally" is merged with the preposition "by." The verb "ate" is changed to its passive form "was eaten." 

2.7.2 Thematisation 

 Thematisation refers to the way in which a particular component of a sentence is placed on an important position at the beginning of sentences so that it has some thematic role . 

Example:  

Normal sentence: "I saw a beautiful girl in the hall." 

Thematised sentence: "In the hall, I saw a beautiful girl." 

 From the thematised sentence, the prepositional phrase "in the hall" is moved to the front, highlighting the location as the theme of the sentence.  

2.7.3 Conclusion  

 Thematisation and passivisation play a significant role in information organization, subject and emphasis marking, stylistic diversity, formality and politeness, and other factors. 

Figure 13 government language using passivization 

https://www.gocomics.com/search/full_results?category=comic&terms=passive+voice 

3. Form & Function

Grammatical form and communicative function are interrelated in language, and in fact they are complementary to each other. Just think of the situation that we use the interrogative form (疑問句) to achieve the communicative function of asking questions. Do you see the relation between them? What sentence form will we use when we want to make a command?

3.1 Form: Clause Types (Mood)

For many years we have been studying English Grammar, we shall readily spot some common sentence forms (e.g. S+V+O)/ (Wh+V+S+...). There is terminology for those sentence form namely clause types, also known as mood. Mood refers to the order of Subject (S) and Finite (F), the first element in the verb group.

example: 

The boy still talking in class

interpretation 1 (S^F): The boy is still talking in class.

interpretation 2: (F^S): Is the boy still talking in class?

In interpretation 1, it is in the form of the subject (S) preceding the finite (F) while in interpretation 2, it is in the form of the finite (F) preceding the subject (S). 

As seen from the above, the order of subject and finite affects the form. We call them in different moods.

In English, four main clause types or moods are realised:

1. Declarative Mood: 

The declarative mood follows the order “S^F” to make statements for giving information. It is considered the most common mood used in communication.

                             S      F           P           …….

•                         She is delivering a speech.

2. Exclamative Mood: 

The exclamative mood follows the order “Wh+S^F” to express strong emotions such as surprise and excitement. It is characterised by the exclamation mark at the end of the sentence.

                             Wh                                     S             F

•                       How spectacular the sunset is!

4. Imperative Mood: 

The imperative mood follows the typical order “ØSØF P” to give orders and instructions or make requests. It is characterised by its direct and authoritative tone. The subject is typically implied rather than explicitly stated since on many occasions, we are addressing someone directly . 

                 No S    No F       P

•                                          Get me some apples!

There are also “ØS F P” and “S ØF P”.

                  No S        F      P

•                                  Do get me some apples!

                 S       No F      P

•                      You,           get me some apples!

By using different moods, we can express our intentions accurately as well as decoding the message conveyed by the speaker smoothly to achieve productive communication. The choice of mood varies with the speaker's purpose and the desired communicative effect.

To generalise, there are four basic categories of speech acts and their relationship with moods:

1. Statements:

Statements are speech acts for the provision of information. This may include telling facts, voicing opinions, describing occurrences and making declarations and promises. They are typically realised by declarative mood. 

• He promised to get home before 6.

2. Questions:

Questions are speech acts for requesting for information or eliciting a response from the listener. They are typically realised by interrogative mood.

• Do you care for a drink?

3. Directives:

Directives are speech acts for getting someone to perform an action by making a suggestion, a warning, a command, a request or an invitation. They are typically realised by imperative mood.

• Let’s throw a party for Harry’s birthday!

• Come along next time!

4. Exclamations:

 Exclamations are speech acts for expressing  attitudes and emotions. They are realised by exclamative mood.

• How smart he is to solve the problem in this way!

Now, let's use a table for summary. 

We can see that there is one speech act (function) typically realised by one mood (form). It comes into question as to whether it is a one-to-one mapping between speech acts and moods. What do you think?

3.3 Relationship Between Form and Function

We shall do some observation beforehand to answer the question just raised. 

• What time is it?

• Could you please make your bed right after you wake up?

The two sentences above are both in an interrogative mood. However, do they serve the same function of demanding information? Are they used to ask for information or make a command or an offer?

• Watch out!

• You have to be careful.

• Can you just be a bit more cautious?

• If I were you, I wouldn’t be that heedless.

The utterances above all aim to achieve one function of warning which warns the listener to be careful; however, varying forms are used, including imperative, declarative and interrogative. 

To this point, we obviously know there is no one-to-one relationship between speech acts (functions) and moods (forms). A clause type does not express one single speech act but several because the mood of a clause is identified simply by its structure or the order of the subject and the finite; however, the speech acts are interpreted based on context and intonation. Let’s take an example to illustrate.

• You care for a drink? (in a rising intonation)

This is a question (speech act) realised by a declarative mood, but not the typical interrogative mood.

In indirect speech acts, the intended illocutionary force or intention is implied rather than explicitly stated. The speaker uses indirect tactics so the mood (clause types/ form) do not directly reflect the communicative purpose; nonetheless, it can still be interpreted depending upon the mutually shared background information, social convention, situational context and even intonation. 

example 1: Directives realised by declarative mood

• It’s hot here.

(Please turn on the air-con for me.)

• I want to be attentive to what the teacher is saying right now.

(Please be quiet./ Shut up!)

example 2: Directives realised by interrogative mood

• Would you mind holding the door open for me?

(Please hold the door open for me.)

example 3: Questions realised by declarative mood

• You know the answer to this question?

(Do you know the answer to this question?)

example 4: Exclamations realised by declarative mood

• That is complete rubbish! You are telling lies!

(What utter nonsense it is!)

example 5: Exclamations realised by interrogative mood

• Why on earth would you do that?

(How unreasonable you are to handle the matter in this way!/ What a mess you have made!)

Below is a video where an indirect speech act (directives realised by interrogative mood) is found. (0:48-1:08)

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZlawibQ_QKI&t=76s

In the video, the general asks “Is that glass bulletproof?” and the security guard easily understands that this is an order (directive) to shoot the alien. Although he still answers “No,sir!”, he doesn’t need to wait for the general to give further orders like “Shoot the alien then!” and automatically shoot the alien himself. 

So, why do we use indirect speech acts? We sometimes use them to express our intentions implicitly and subtly, negotiate politeness, maintain social harmony, and convey meaning more effectively. Same function can be achieved with different moods that vary in terms of directness, politeness, or formality.  To illustrate, when you want people not to make any noise, you can address them in a courteous way by saying “Could you please be quiet?” instead of “Shut up!”.

Indirect speech acts require listeners to interpret the speakers’ communicative purposes beyond the literal words used, reflecting the versatility of language as a tool for conveying messages.

4. Benefits of Functional grammar to children

Functional grammar theories provide valuable insights into the stages and patterns observed in children's language acquisition, emphasizing the functional aspects of grammar and its role in communication. (Anat Ninio,2018). 

4.1.1 Social Tool Used for Communication and meaning-making

According to these theories, children acquire language by actively engaging in social interactions and using language to achieve communicative goals(Zhiwen Feng,2013). A feature of those instances through which small children come to master the system; but it is not something that is re-enacted. Children learn language by being exposed to meaningful and communicative interactions with caregivers and other speakers. (M.A.K. Halliday,2004) Through these interactions, they internalize the functional patterns and structures of the language they are exposed to. Functional categories and structures play a vital role in children's language acquisition as they can express and comprehend various meanings and intentions. Figure 18 shows, that these linguistic elements are instrumental in facilitating children's language development, enabling them to communicate and convey their thoughts and desires effectively.

4.1.2 Comprehension skills

Functional grammar helps children understand the language used by others. ( Beverly Derewianka,2011) By recognizing functional categories and structures in sentences, children can grasp the roles and relationships of different elements within a sentence, enhancing their comprehension skills.

Overall, functional grammar is important for children as it provides them with the fundamental tools and structures necessary for effective communication, comprehension, and language development. It empowers children to navigate and understand the complexities of language, laying the groundwork for their linguistic abilities and future academic success.

4.2 Caregiver-Child Interaction of Functional Grammar

From birth, children are surrounded by their caretakers’ environment and the language used to describe it. This exposure plays a crucial role in their language development. providing a consistent English-speaking environment and engaging them in language-rich activities will greatly support their language-learning journey.

4.2.1 Caregiver-child interactions

In caregiver-child interactions, functional grammar theories suggest that caregivers play a significant role in scaffolding and facilitating language development.

Caregivers provide linguistic input, engage in conversations, and create meaningful interactions that support children's language acquisition. (Tamis-LeMonda, Kuchirko, & Song, 2014)

Moreover, functional grammar theories emphasize the interactive and dialogic nature of caregiver-child interactions. Caregivers engage in conversational exchanges with children, taking turns, asking questions, and providing feedback. These communicative exchanges allow children to practice and develop their language skills, as well as understand the pragmatic aspects of language use.

4.2.1.1 Interactive examples of Caregivers and children

 In the video shown in Figure 19, the teacher and children are talking about sandwiches. the teacher: what is this? The function is seeking information. Then, Children: This is a sandwich. The functional is identifying and labeling the object. Through this, we can gain this functional grammar analysis that highlights how the child uses figurative language, subject-verb agreement, noun phrases, verb phrases, and possessive constructions to express their understanding and feelings.

4.2.3 Adaptation and Scaffolding in Children's Language

Functional grammar further highlights that caregivers often adjust their language use based on children's linguistic abilities and developmental stage. Caregivers gradually introduce more complex linguistic structures and expand vocabulary as children progress in their language development. This scaffolding helps children internalize functional categories and structures at an appropriate pace.

4.3 Challenges in Learning and Teaching English Functional Grammar as a Second Language 

Functional grammar focuses on how language is used in different contexts and for different purposes. When learning English functional grammar as a second language, learners and teachers may encounter several challenges. 

4.3.1 Understanding and use of functional grammar structures

Learners' first language may influence their understanding and use of functional grammar structures. The difference between Cantonese and English in terms of functional grammar lies in the structures and rules used to convey meaning. In the video shown in Figure 20 , Word Order: Cantonese and English have different word order patterns. In Cantonese, the basic word order is Subject-Verb-Object (SVO), while in English, it is Subject-Verb-Object (SVO) in declarative sentences.

Learners may encounter challenges in transferring grammatical concepts or structures from their first language to the target language, leading to potential errors or confusion.

4.3.2 Collocations and Idiomatic Expressions

Functional grammar often involves the use of collocations (words that frequently occur together) and idiomatic expressions (phrases with figurative meanings). For example, understanding and using collocations like "take a shower," 做決定" is "make a decision/do decision" or idiomatic expressions like "break a leg" or "hit the nail on the head" can be challenging for non-native speakers.

4.3.3 Miss the best opportunity to learn

Children learn languages ​​more easily than adults, and despite adults' experience, learning a second language becomes more difficult as they age. If language learners start learning a second language after the age of 10, it is almost impossible for them to reach the native level, resulting in the decline of functional grammar (Jashua. K. Hartshorne, 2018).

4.4 Effective Functional Grammar Tools for Teaching Language to Children

These tools focus on enhancing children's language acquisition, promoting meaningful communication, and supporting their overall language development. 

Functional grammar tools are valuable resources for teaching language to children. Incorporating language games, worksheets, storytelling, role-plays, multimedia resources, and collaborative projects into instruction can enhance children's language acquisition, promote meaningful communication, and support their overall language development. By utilizing these tools, educators can create engaging and effective learning experiences that help children develop strong language skills based on functional grammar principles.

4.4.1 Sentence Building Blocks

Provide children with sets of word cards that represent different parts of speech (nouns, verbs, adjectives, etc.). They can then use these cards to construct sentences, helping them understand how different words work together to form meaningful expressions. The SFG approach utilizes real functional building blocks of word groups as opposed to abstract traditional concepts of parts of speech.(as shown in Figure 22)

 References 

Derewianka, B. (2011b). A new grammar companion for teachers. 

Downing, A. (2014). English grammar. A university course. Routledge 

Education Endowment Foundation. (2022, July 5). High quality interactions in the Early Years - The ShREC approach [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HJSfZRtUMXk 

Feng, Z. (2013). Functional Grammar and its implications for English teaching and learning. English Language Teaching, 6(10). 

Functional Grammar: A brief Introduction. (n.d.). https://petaa.edu.au/litportal/litportal/Getting-Started/Teaching-strategies/Pedagogy-101/functional_grammar.aspx 

Halliday, Μ. Α. Κ., Matthiessen, C. M., Halliday, M., & Matthiessen, C. M. (2014). An introduction to functional grammar. In Routledge eBooks. 

Hartshorne, J. K., Tenenbaum, J. B., & Pinker, S. (2018). A critical period for second language acquisition: Evidence from 2/3 million English speakers. Cognition 

McCrocklin, S. & Slater, T. (2017). A Model for Teaching Literary Analysis Using Systemic Functional  Grammar. Texas Journal of Literacy Education, 5(1), 81-96. 

Ninio, A. (2018). Learning to structure sentences through the acquisition of grammatical words: Introduction to the special issue on the role of grammatical words in young children’s syntactic development. First Language, 39(1), 3–8. 

Tamis-LeMonda, C. S., Kuchirko, Y., & Song, L. (2014b). Why is infant language learning facilitated by parental responsiveness? Current Directions in Psychological Science 

We Can Canto. (2023, September 7). Months of the year in Cantonese [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wffQEkpV464 

Winch, G., Ross-Johnston, R., Holliday, M., March, P., & Ljungdahl, L. (2010). Literacy: Reading, writing and children's literature. (4th ed.). South Melbourne, Victoria: Oxford University Press.  

Multiple Choice Questions

1.What aspect does the Textual Metafunction primarily focus on in language?

A) Expression of content and meaning
B) Linguistic and social aspects
C) Organization and coherence of language in texts and discourse
D) Analysis of cohesion and modality

Answer: C 

2.Which influential scholar made significant contributions to the development of systemic functional linguistics (SFL) and emphasized the interplay between language, society, and culture?

A) Michael A.K. Halliday

B) Ruqaiya Hasan

C) Noam Chomsky

D) Ferdinand de Saussure

Answer: B

3.  In the conversation between Mary and John, which concept of functional grammar is demonstrated?

Mary: "Hey John, I was thinking we could go hiking this weekend. The weather is supposed to be great, and it would be a wonderful opportunity to enjoy nature and get some exercise."

A) Effective Communication
B) Interpretation of Message
C) Social Interaction
D) Writing and Reading
E) Language Teaching and Learning

Answer: A

4. Which of the following sentences is an example of a transitive verb?

A) "She sings beautifully."

B) "The sun shines brightly."

C) "He sleeps peacefully."

D) "They laughed at the joke."

Answer:D 

5. Which of the following options represents the passive voice of the sentence "She is teaching English to the students"?

A) "English is being taught to the students by her."

B) "She teaches English to the students."

C) "The students are being taught English by her."

D) "She will teach English to the students."

Answer: C 

6.Which part of speech is the participant process in the sentence "The chef prepared a delicious meal"?

A) Noun

B) Adjective

C) Verb

D) Adverb

Answer: C

7. Which type of indirect speech act is used in the sentence "I have to know your date of birth."?

A) Directives realised by declarative mood
B) Directives realised by interrogative mood
C) Questions realised by declarative mood
D) Exclamations realised by declarative mood

Answer: A

8. Which of the following is an advantage of using indirect speech acts?

A) As a showcase of how proficient one's English is
B) Enhanced of social politeness and cultural sensitivity
C) Facilitation of direct and straightforward conversations
D) Elimination of ambiguity and misinterpretation

Answer: B

9.What is the purpose of scaffolding in children's language development?

A) To accelerate language learning by providing intensive instruction

B) To limit the exposure to complex linguistic structures

C) To gradually introduce more complex linguistic structures and expand vocabulary

D) To discourage children from experimenting with new words and phrases

Answer: C

10. Which of the following does the passage suggest is important for caregiver-child interactions according to functional grammar theories?

A) Reading stories together 

B) Correcting children's grammatical errors

C) Engaging in conversational exchanges

D) Focusing only on vocabulary development

Answer: C