Chapter 02 Nature of Language

Gurung Shurti, Hui Jan, Rai Pujan, Wong Sze Long

What is language? Is it supposed to be ever changing or fixed? How does language change when times go by? Why can I hear different versions of English in Hong Kong? Are dogs communicating like us? In this chapter, we will explore the fascinating nature of language, exploring its variations, investigating the fascinating question of its origin, examining animal communication as a comparative lens, and exploring different perspectives on the very essence of language itself. 

1.1 What is Language 

As human beings, it is impossible to only speak a word for the rest of our lives or to communicate with our peers. Therefore, this is where language comes in. 

Language is a set of words, it can be either manually (signed), or written that humans use to express oneself. The greater the complexity of a language, the more diverse it exhibits in functions and traits (Stillman, 2022). Language’s basic function is communication which allows humans to express their thoughts, ideas, feelings, and desires.

1.1.2 Hierarchical Structure

Language has a hierarchical structure, with smaller linguistic units (OpenAI, 2023) merging to produce bigger components. At the most basic level, there are phonemes and distinct sounds in a language. Phonemes come together to produce morphemes, they are the smallest units of significance such as words or prefixes/suffixes (15.4 Prefixes and Suffixes).

Morphemes, consequently, combine to generate words that serve as the fundamental components of meaning in a language. Words are later incorporated to form phrases, sentences, and bigger speech pieces. (OpenAI, 2023)

Figure 1. Levels of linguistic structure (Illuminating the Path: The Research and Development Agenda for Visual Analytics, n.d.) 

1.1.3 Productivity 

One of the most impressive aspects of language is its production and the ability to create and comprehend fresh and distinctive statements. Chomsky, known for his work in linguistics and is called “the father of modern linguistics” (Chomsky.info : Bios, n.d.) defines it as "the ability of speakers to produce and understand sentences they have never heard before." (MATTHEWS, 1997, p. 81). That is, "the language users' ability to generate and comprehend an endlessly huge amount of sentences, many of which people have never heard or encountered before" (CRYSTAL, 2000, p. 71). The use of language, according to Humboldt, entails the "infinite application of finite tools" (CHOMSKY, 1986, p. 30). Language is productive or creative in the sense that it allows for the development and decoding of new information. There are no topic limitations and language is always being added to.

1.2  The Gestural Origin of language

According to this theory, language evolved from manual gestures. It is no surprise that it plays a role in non-linguistic. Early human communication relied mostly on gestural signals, which gradually evolved into a more sophisticated system of gestures with symbolic meaning. (OpenAI, 2023). Our ancestors could communicate using gestures. However, they weren't able to regulate their vocalizations. As a result, they largely utilized gestures to communicate meaningfully; speech emerged from this mainly gestural style of communication only when our ancestors' capacity to control their vocalizations improved. Hunt and Park (2016)

1.2.1 Evolution of Gestural Theory 

Human and social factors possibly impacted the evolution of gesture communication. As individuals, children naturally indulge in movements before learning spoken language, indicating a developmental pathway from gestures to speech. Presently, we still benefit from gestures, let’s say when asking a person to describe a spiral and the size of the fish that they claimed to have captured, gesture will be used. Furthermore, while attempting to interact with others who speak other languages, individuals automatically turn to hand gestures (The Gestural Origins of Language, 2023). 

1.2.2 The Onomatopoeia Theory 

Onomatopoeia is referred to as the usage of words that imitate sounds. It is frequently studied using sound symbolism ideas( Sasamoto and Jackson, 2016). Several languages contain words for the sounds that come from animals. In English, for example, we say "meow" for a cat's sound. In a similar way the Japanese words for a dog's barking is "wan-wan,"(OpenAI, 2023) These cross-linguistic resemblances indicate an amount of iconicity in portraying animal noises. (Onomatopoeic Words: Animals | EnglishClub, n.d.).  People can mimic sounds in their surroundings, like occurrences of nature or mechanical noises, on their own. One may replicate the noise of lightning through the use of "rumble" and "boom," or else they may make a "vroom" noise to imitate the sound of the engine of a car. Humans can use these copies to elicit recognisable noises and communicate certain meanings connected with those sounds.

Figure 3. Sound imitation ( Generated by Padlet )

The video linked below talks about what is “Onomatopoeia” and the relationship between sound and language

What is onomatopoeia?  

1.2.4 The Cultural Evolution Theory 

The Cultural Evolution Theory has become extensively utilised in the study of language origins and evolution ( OpenAI, 2023)  

The procedure through which a language has been passed down from one generation to the next in a group of people is known as cultural transmission. It recognises that language is a cultural system that has evolved and diversified over generations, rather than an innate or fixed aspect of human biology ( OpenAI, 2023 )  Transmission of culture is recognised as one of the key distinctions between animal and human communication. ("Language in Nature" in The Language Phenomenon, 2013).

1.2.4.1 Linguist Tao Gong has identified three primary forms of cultural transmission (Cultural Transmission of Language, n.d.)

1. Horizontal Transmission: Communication between individuals belonging to the same generation

2. Vertical transmission: when a descendant of one generation speaks with a person of another generation who is biologically related

3. Oblique transmission: where any individual of one generation communicates with any person of a later generation who is not biologically related

1.2.4.2. Semantic Structure 

Language has a semantic structure, or meaning possibility, that allows cultural norms to be transmitted (Halliday 1978: 109). As a consequence, when a kid is picking up a language, additional crucial learning  occurs through the use of language. The child is acquiring the meanings linked with the culture at the same time.

2.2 Language variation

Language is known for being dynamic and ever-changing, studying language variations can allow us to understand how languages are constructed under different factors, language may vary in terms of accent, sentence structure, dialects or slangs.

2.2.1 What is language variation

Language variation arises as a result of the multifaceted interplay between regional and cultural influences, as well as the heterogeneous linguistic practices exhibited by various communities and individuals. The demonstration of this phenomenon can occur across multiple levels, including phonological, syntactic, lexical, and semantic levels (Openai, 2023). For instance, in the context of a conversation between two individuals who share a common language, the presence of modest variations in word pronunciation or grammatical structure can already be observed as a characteristic of language diversity stemming from their distinct backgrounds

Figure 3. Chinese Dialects ( Generated by Padlet ) 

www.youtubeeducation.com/watch?v=d9eCNdv0XMQ 

The above example illustrates different variations of the dialect of  “Have you ate?” in Chinese.

2.2.1.1 Phonological variation

Phonological variation refers to the difference in accent when speaking, including intonation patterns and speech rhythms, the speed of talking and the rising or falling of pitch is considered in this category (Anglia, 2019), from the video we can notice that speakers exhibit distinct speeds and combinations of intonations when expressing their respective regional dialects.

2.2.1.2 Syntactic variation

Syntactic variation refers to the various ways in which a language's sentences can be structured and expressed (Green, 2007). Variations in word order, sentence structure, and grammatical constructions are included. In the video, even though the order of subject, object, and verb phrase varies across regional dialects, all of them can express the same meaning.

2.2.1.3 Lexical variation

Lexical variation is relevant to the diverse vocabulary and expressions employed in order to denote identical objects or concepts (Robinson, 2007). For instance, you may think the couple below are eating “cookies”, however in the UK, those are considered as “biscuits”, in this case two different word choice “cookies” and “biscuits” are used to describe the same kind of round baked treats, which helps to demonstrate how language users adapt their word choices based on their language community.

Figure 4. “Cookies” and “Biscuits” ( Generated by Padlet ) 

2.2.1.4 Semantic variation

Semantic variation refers to the differences in meaning or interpretation of words or phrases within a language (Openai, 2023). Different UK and US interpretations of “chips” show semantic variation. British“chips” are thick-cut fried potatoes like American“fries”. Thin, crispy potato slices are called “chips” in the US and “potato chips” in the UK. This shows how regional and cultural differences can change the meaning of a word. 

2.2.2 Factors affecting the Language diversity

There are numerous variables that contribute to the growth of language variance, comprising geographical diversity, social factors, historical impacts, governmental policies, language contact, and more elements.

2.2.2.1 Geographical factors

Geographical diversity plays a pivotal role in constructing language variation, Diverse geographical location influences language variation in several aspects, distance and geographical difference had effects on people on how to use the language and lead to the emergence of regional dialects (Omar & Alotaibi, 2012).

2.2.2.1.1 Geographical features

Languages undergo adaptation in response to geographical boundaries and natural surroundings. Physical barriers, such as mountains, rivers, and oceans, serve as demarcations that divide populations from one another. The reduction of social interaction within communities would play a role in the development of language variety. Additionally, the absence of exposure resulting from isolation caused by geographical factors would provide a favorable environment for language divergence. One illustrative instance that bolsters the notion of geographical variables playing a role in language diversity is observed in the Dong language, which is spoken by the Dong populations residing in Guizhou, China. The Dong communities experience isolation due to the presence of steep terrain, leading to the development of a wide range of dialects and variations in the Dong language (Edmondson, 2001).

2.2.2.1.2 Migration

Migration can also give rise to language variation, as migrating groups bring their languages to new regions. Through interactions with other language groups, such as the local population, the migrants' language undergoes a process of contact and ultimately gives rise to new language varieties known as creole languages. An instance of migration exerting an influence on language variation can be observed in the case of Western European Turkish. During the 1950s, there occurred a significant influx of Turkish labor migrants to Germany, leading to the establishment of Turkish communities within a predominantly Dutch-speaking society. This socio-linguistic context gave rise to a distinct variation of the Turkish language, commonly referred to as Western European Turkish. According to the study conducted by Backus et al. (2010).

3. Different views on nature of language 

Debates on the topic of right or wrong regarding the nature of language is an ongoing phenomenon. It is important to understand the arguments of both perspectives so as to learn what type of assumptions, concepts and attitudes drive the certain perception.  

In the broad spectrum of linguistics, this section will focus on two of the major theories that view language. The behaviourist and nativist perspectives on language are two opposing viewpoints that give distinct explanations for how language is acquired and develops. 

3.1 Theories on nature of language.

3.1.1 Behaviourist Theory

The behaviourist theory suggests that language is thought to be a type of behaviour that is taught through conditioning and reinforcement. Language, according to this perspective, is a collection of habits learned via imitation and repetition (Volkmar 2021). One notable figure that popularised this belief is B.F. Skinner, a behaviourist who argued that language acquisition occurs through a process of stimulus-response associations. Children learn language through copying others' speech and receiving reward for accurate language usage. Language, according to behaviourists, is simply a collection of learned habits, and the principles of stimulus, response, and reinforcement may account for all aspects of language development.

Figure 6 dog teaching puppy how to get treats 

(Image downloaded from https://www.gocomics.com/brevity/2011/11/24 )

3.1.1.1  operant conditioning

It is a form of learning process in which behaviour is modified by the consequences that follow it is known. Learners are able to link certain acts with positive or bad outcomes by influencing the consequences of their conduct, resulting in changes in their behaviour over time. It is important to note the effectiveness of operant conditioning is determined by the consequences' timing, consistency, and appropriateness. They are mainly separated into three reinforcement process: positive, negative and punishment. Positive and negative reinforcement are means of encouraging behaviour, whereas punishment is aimed at discouraging behaviours. Reinforcement improves the behaviours that is reinforced, whereas punishment diminishes it.

3.1.2 Nativist Theory

On the other hand, the nativist theory suggests that language is something that we born with and that individuals are born with an innate ability to communicate. The theory was hypothesised by Noam Chomsky, a renowned nativist who argued that humans are born with inherent linguistic structures or processes that predispose them to readily acquire language.

Figure 7  A baby already speaking complete sentences.

( Image downloaded from https://macblog.mcmaster.ca/fryeblog/2009/09/24/the-phases-and-modes-of-language/)

3.1.2.1 Critical period hypothesis

The critical period hypothesis is a theory that suggests there is a specific time window during which a child is most sensitive to acquiring certain skills or knowledge. It proposes that if a child does not receive appropriate language exposure during this key period, which is usually assumed to occur before puberty, their capacity to gain native-like skill in a language may be jeopardised.

This brings us to the case of Genie, a wild child who had been neglected since a young age and didn’t speak due to being isolated.

Genie : Here is a link to youtube in which a short introduction Genie. It highlights the sad case of how late language intervention after the critical stage can harm the language learning process.

Figure 8 A picture of Ginie, the wild child

(Image downloaded from https://lizjin.medium.com/the-heartbreaking-story-of-a-feral-child-named-genie-d92e00dc1ec6 )

3.2 Distinction between Behaviourism and Nativism

Behaviorism and nativism differ significantly in their views on language acquisition, particularly regarding the role of innate factors versus environmental influences. 

3.2.1     Nature vs Nurture

Behaviorism emphasises the role of the environment (nurture) in language acquisition. It suggests that language is learned through conditioning, reinforcement, and imitation. According to behaviourists, language development is primarily a product of external stimuli and the associations formed between stimuli and responses.

In contrast, nativism emphasises the role of innate factors (nature) in language acquisition. Nativists argue that humans are born with innate linguistic abilities or structures that enable them to acquire language effortlessly. They propose that there are universal principles underlying all languages, and children have an innate predisposition to acquire these principles.

3.3 Behaviourism and Nativism in Education

Despite their differences, behaviourism and nativism approaches can be seen in the modern teaching environment as it facilitates effective teaching. 

3.3.1 Behaviourism in Education

It is crucial to understand how behaviourism can motivate and help learners. The information passes from the teachers to the students from a response to a right stimulus. 

Students are considered passive participants in learning , where teachers are giving them the information as element of stimulus-response 

Teachers use behaviours that are favourable to show students how they should react and respond to certain situations. This is called behaviour shaping, it makes sure that desired behaviours can be shaped through reinforcement and rewards. It usually has to be done in a repetitive process in order to remind students what behaviour the teacher is looking for. This process can be through drilling and practice.

It is important to note that positive reinforcement plays a key part in the learning process.

3.3.2 Nativism in Education

"In general, language acquisition is a stubbornly robust process; from what we can tell there is virtually no way to prevent it from happening short of raising a child in a barrel" 

S. Pinker, The Language Instinct,1984, p.29

Pinker (1984) said this following quote about language development in his book.

This theory believes that children learn language easily and spontaneously. Unlike animals who must associate certain behaviors with “treats”, nativism explains that children require no explicit teaching or systematic reward system for learning the rule of language.

3.4 Criticism with Behaviourism and Nativism.

While both opposing theories have their own considerable supporting information, it has been subject to criticism.

3.4.1 Behaviourism

Behaviourism focuses on the ability of the actions and can clearly see the results in the behaviour. However, it only observes the partial account of human behaviour and ignores the internal mental processes such as understanding of grammar rules, creative language production, or the ability to comprehend and produce novel and complex sentences (Moore 2013).

3.4.2 Nativism 

On the other hand, nativism may underestimate the role of environmental factors in language acquisition. Research suggests that the language input and exposure children receive from their environment play a crucial role in shaping their language development. Innatism alone may not provide a comprehensive explanation of how environmental factors interact with innate capacities in language learning.

4. Animal Communication

Other than human communication, it is imperative to also study the communication of animals. Different animals have various ways to interact with their own kind, some may even be able to interact with humans. And by studying it, the secret of the origin of language may be one step closer to disclose it may lie within this context.

4.1 The ways of Animal Communication.

Animals employ a diverse array of signals and behaviours in order to convey and exchange information throughout the process of communication. Animals commonly employ vocalisations, body language, visual signs, and chemical markers as means of communication.

4.1.1 Vocalisations

The majority of animal species engage in communication through vocalisations, which serve various functions such as mate attraction, warning signals, and territorial establishment.However, there exist other methods of generating these noises for the purpose of interaction. Dolphins and bats are recognised for their ability to communicate using auditory signals. Dolphins exhibit a diverse repertoire of sounds, including clicks, whistles, and burst-pulse sounds, whilst bats are notable for releasing high-frequency sounds for echolocation purposes.

4.1.2 Nonverbal Communication: Body Language

The predominant mode of communication among the majority of animals is body language. In feline behaviour, a tail that is puffed up and an arched back are indicative of aggressive tendencies, whereas a tail that is relaxed and held erect signifies a state of ease and happiness.

4.1.3 The utilisation of visual representations

In addition to vocalisation and body language, animals frequently employ visual displays as a means of communication. An example of this can be observed in male peacocks, which possess ornate and vivid tail feathers referred to as "trains". Male peacocks extend their train in a fan-shaped arrangement as a means to attract female peacocks.

Figure 9 Train of male peacock (image downloaded from https://www.sciencephoto.com/media/673663/view/a-male-peacock-displaying-to-a-female )

4.1.4 Chemical signals 

Numerous animal species employ the emission of chemical compounds known as pheromones as a means of inter-species communication. One kind of communication in honeybees involves the utilisation of pheromones, which are chemical substances emitted into the surrounding environment. These pheromones serve as a means for conveying different messages among the members of the hive.

4.2 The Ways of human communicate

4.2.1 spoken language

It is noteworthy that despite the considerable variation in grammar, construction, and historical development among different languages spoken by individuals, many linguistic traits are yet found to be commonly shared. The subsequent illustrations are provided in the English language for the purpose of enhancing clarity and ease of understanding. However, it should be noted that these examples are not exclusive to the English language. The vast majority of spoken languages across the globe will exhibit instances of all of these linguistic characteristics.

4.2.2 written language.

The term "written language" pertains to a kind of language that is transcribed and employed for the purpose of documenting occurrences, concepts, and emotions. It facilitates the dissemination and retrieval of intricate ideas and knowledge among individuals, transcending generational boundaries.Several examples of writing systems include Chinese characters, the Latin alphabet, and the Arabic alphabet.

4.2.3 Nonverbal communication 

Nonverbal communication encompasses many non-linguistic cues such as facial expressions, bodily movements, eye contact, and hand gestures, among others, which are employed to convey a message. Nonverbal communication is a fundamental aspect of interpersonal interaction, facilitating the transmission of emotions and feelings to others.

Figure 10 examples of hand signals (image downloaded from https://elcosh.org/document/1458/d000068/excavator-hand-signals.html ) 

4.2.4 Symbolic communication 

The human species has a distinctive cognitive capacity to employ symbols as a means of representing physical entities, abstract notions, and conceptual frameworks. This enables individuals to engage in abstract thinking and effectively convey complex concepts and innovative thinking. Symbols serve as the fundamental components of both spoken and written communication, encompassing various forms such as words, numbers, images, and gestures. 

Figure 11 examples of symbolic communication ( image downloaded from https://literacyforallinstruction.ca/symbol-based-communication/)

4.3 Factors that Distinguish Animal Communication from Human Language

4.3.1 Complexity

Language is a unique human capability that enables the communication of abstract concepts, intricate notions, and symbolic representations.  There exist several distinguishing factors between humans and animals, as animal communication predominantly revolves around fulfilling current needs, such as reproduction, signalling threats, or demarcating territory.

4.3.2 grammar and syntax.

The defining characteristics of human language are its formal framework for organising words and constructing logical sentences. The ability to convey intricate and subtle messages has been facilitated by this development. The ability of animals to communicate is limited in comparison to human language, since it typically lacks the complex grammatical structures and syntactical norms seen in human communication. However, animal communication is still capable of conveying essential signals.

4.3.3 productivity and creativity

The human capacity to synthesise words and grammatical principles enables the generation of an infinite array of novel expressions. This promotes the development of innovative ideas and artistic expression.In contrast, animal communication tends to exhibit more restricted capabilities in terms of the breadth of messages that may be transmitted, typically relying on predetermined patterns or signals.

4.3.4 Learning and cultural transmission

The acquisition of human language is predominantly facilitated through social interaction and cultural transmission. Children often acquire their language abilities by being exposed to both spoken and written language within their immediate social environment.In contrast, animals generally depend on instinctual behaviours or genetically predetermined vocalisations and gestures.

4.3.5 displacement and time.

The human language exhibits the ability to refer to entities, such as events, objects, or concepts, that are not now perceptible within the immediate linguistic context. This linguistic feature is commonly referred to as displacement. Humans possess the capacity to communicate intricate tales and plans by virtue of their ability to incorporate allusions to the past, present, and future.In contrast, animal communication frequently prioritises the current moment and immediate necessities.

While animals and humans cannot communicate in the same way as humans do through spoken or written language, there are instances where animals can communicate with humans to some extent. Domesticated pets such as dogs and cats can understand and respond to human signals and instructions through training. Some animals, like apes and dolphins, have been trained to use sign language or other symbolic systems to establish communication with humans. However, the exchange of information between animals and humans is limited by the cognitive capacities and sensory perceptions of the respective species. Animals' communication abilities are generally less complex compared to human language. Nonetheless, developing communication channels with animals can enhance our understanding and connection with them.

References 

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Comprehension questions (Chapter 2)

Please answer the following 10 multiple choice questions.

1. What is language?

A) A communication system that enables people to share their intents, feelings, ideas, and thoughts.

B) A nonverbal communication method utilizing gestures and body language.

C) A system of information transmission that uses only written symbols.

D) A communication channel that is restricted to the sharing of factual data.

Key Answer: A 

2. Which of the following assumptions is accurate in regard to the gestural origin of language theory?

A) Written symbols gave rise to language, which then developed into gestures.

B) Vocalisations gave the development of language, with gestures following later.

C) Vocalisations had no part in the origin of language; gestures were the only source.

D) There is no proof to back up the purely theoretical idea that language originated through gestures.

Key Answer: B 

3. The use of words to mimic sounds is known as onomatopoeia. Which idea is commonly applied when studying it?

A) Sound symbolism 

B) Alliteration 

C) Metaphor

D) Exaggerated

Key Answer: A

4. What is semantic variation?

A) Differences in word order and sentence structure
B) Differences in accent, intonation, and speech rhythm
C) Differences in meaning or interpretation of words or phrases
D) Differences in vocabulary and expressions

C

5. Which example demonstrates the influence of migration on language variation?

A) Regional dialects in Dong language spoken in Guizhou, China
B) Differences in word pronunciation due to geographical boundaries
C) Development of Western European Turkish in Germany
D) Variations in vocabulary and expressions across different English-speaking countries

C

6. How has technology contributed to language variation?

A) It has led to the emergence of regional dialects
B) It has increased social interaction and language convergence
C) It has influenced word spelling and the spread of new language features
D) It has resulted in semantic variation

C

7. Which of the methods are not emphasised in behaviourist theory

A) Conditioning

B) Reinforcement

C) Imitation

D) Singing

Key answer : D

8. Who popularised the theory of innate linguistic abilities?

A) BF Skinner

B) Noam Chomsky

C) Steven Pinker

D) Albert Einstein

Key answer : B

9. What animal possesses a tail feather referred to as “ train “?

A) Bee 

B) Male Peacock

C) Female peacock 

D) Dolphin

Key Answer: B

10. Which one is not mentioned in non verbal communication?

A) Body movements 

B) Eye contact

C) Facial expressions 

D) Dancing

Key Answer: D