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In this module, you will explore the notion of art as a construct. Through examples from architecture, visual art, music, dance, and literature, you will form an understanding of art’s function across periods, media, and cultures. The assigned critical texts, activities, and class discussions will help you unravel suppositions and contradictions in works of art without losing sight of their influence and significance in our time.
Learning objectives
Learning objectives
After working on this module, you should be able to:
- Demonstrate your understanding of how art functions; and
- Reinterpret the internal assumptions in art works.
The autonomy of art
The autonomy of art
In early civilizations, religion, ritual, and art were indivisible. Art had a ceremonial purpose in accord with society’s aim to organize human life in the wake of chaotic nature (Paglia, 1990: 8). The artists we know today trace a lineage back to artisans who created useful things such as clothing, tools, and utensils; ornaments and markings on the body that signaled social role or prestige; and burial jars and catacombs whose hieroglyphs foretold the afterlife. Bards chanted the origin of the universe, the lives of deities, entire ancestries. Shamans propitiated spirits by building installations or dancing in exchange for a bountiful crop or the wellness of a household. Raconteurs assisted their community leaders in settling grievances (Wigglesworth, 2004:13).
The merging of religion and art would endure in pyramids, ancient temples, and cathedrals. Tapestries, paintings, sculpture, and scripture depicted the word of an omnipotent creator and the prophets who charted for ordinary people the purpose and meaning of existence.
In courtly society, art would become a representation of the “glory” of monarchs and their empire (Burger, 1984: 52). Artists sought the patronage of royalty and cultivated the lucrative genre of portraiture. For a while, art was a showcase of nobility and stature.
A significant turn happened in the 18th Century in Europe when art established autonomy and turned ritual into formalism. “The beautiful is that which pleases universally without requiring a concept,” Immanuel Kant argued in the Critique of Judgment, in which he describes a subjective, that is individual, response to art. Art became an aim in itself, a “purposeless purpose,” an autonomous realm with its own “aesthetic” rules. Artists asserted themselves as individuals free from the doctrines of the church and servitude to the royal court. Later, this “autonomy” both of art and the artist would be scrutinized and eventually deconstructed.
Instead of being a singular achievement of an artist or a self-enclosed aesthetic realm, the work of art is a product of its own time and the forces that enabled its conception. Political, social, and economic structures either influence art to become powerful symbols that can sway the public, artifacts that build cultural continuities, or commodities that perpetuate a dominant consciousness. How do artworks sustain belief systems? What meanings can be unpacked from an episode of a TV series, a popular dance craze, or a famous monument?
Activity 3.1. Literature and Society
Activity 3.1. Literature and Society
Allot 1 hour
Read Salvador P. Lopez’s essay “Literature and Society” (available on MyPortal) and try to imagine and describe the kind of art Lopez values and the notion of art he opposes. Take note of the following:
- How art is often thought of as separate from society
- How, according to Lopez, young artists typically begin with a notion of art as an expression of beauty
- How great artists thrive through their engagement with society
- Lopez’s idea of “pure literature” or “Art for Art’s sake” as a “comfortable philosophy of escape”
- Lopez’s idea that the highest form of art is emancipatory and altruistic
After reading the article, answer the following questions and be ready to share your answers in class:
- How can art be a practice for its own sake?
- Why is it detrimental to believe that art is a form of escape?
- Why is it important for art to address the “problems of [the artist’s] time”?
- Is it possible for artists to create “pure art,” one that can be held separate from its social or historical context?
- What does Lopez mean when he said that writers and artists should be “teachers of men”?
- What is considered beautiful, enchanting, or edifying in works of art, and why?
It is possible to hold works of art outside of the writer or artist’s life and the society that produced them. However, how would this separation of artist and art and, ultimately, art and society affect to the role of art in the lives of people?
Even though the practice of art is guided by formal rules, art is still the product of culture and a particular moment in that culture’s history. Apart from principles of beauty, techniques, materials, art is a made through ideas, motivations, and intent. Art is also shaped by the conditions that made its creation possible. Systems of thought, whether religious or political or pedagogical, affect artistic production and reception. In other words, politics is also potent force behind a work of art.
Art as an ideological apparatus, art as a political discourse
Art as an ideological apparatus, art as a political discourse
The philosopher Louis Althusser defined ideology to “represent the imaginary relationship of individuals to their real conditions of existence” (1971: 1300). Since this relationship is imaginary, ideology has a way to insulate individuals from the real state of affairs in their lives. Relations among people are distorted to maintain a set of circumstances—to keep people in line. Thus, individuals are alienated from the real conditions of their existence and turned into subjects whose beliefs, decisions, and acts are affected by ideology.
Althusser went further to describe people in authority and power, or those running the State, who are responsible for this ideological mystification: political and religious leaders, educators, and parental figures. He calls these agents of ideologies Ideological State Apparatuses: the church, the family, political parties, government, schools and universities. Through these ISAs, the ruling class puts forward a ruling ideology that helps maintain the status quo.
Where does art fall in this equation?
Recall in the early discussions the ritualistic aspect of art and how inseparable it used to be from religious practices. Consider how religion—an important belief system in majority of the people in the world—transforms individuals into subjects who follow its doctrine. The same can be said of political ideology, of social ideology, and certainly, of aesthetic ideology.
Activity 3.2. Althusser’s “Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses.”
Activity 3.2. Althusser’s “Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses.”
Allot 1 hour
Read an excerpt from Louis Althusser’s “Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses.” (Available on MyPortal)
Note: While it is always a good thing to read original texts from key thinkers such as Althusser, you would be most likely reading it in some kind of abbreviated or translated version. (The original essay published in 1970, Idéologie et appareils idéologiques d'État, was written in French.) By all means, try to read the original work, and try to read it in French if you can, even. But if you are short on time, see Dino Felluga's modules on Althusser's notion of ideology and ideological state apparatuses.
Take note of the following:
- Althusser’s definition of ideology
- How ideology is made concrete
- The institutions considered as Ideological State Apparatuses
- How ideology transforms individuals as subjects
Following Althusser’s thesis, artists themselves are subjects hailed by ideology. We who are the audience of art are also subjects. Works of art, whether overtly or not, convey ideological messages. Consider the following examples:
- The films of Leni Riefenstahl that extolled the virtues of Nazism
- The movie Iginuhit ng Tadhana that mythologized the life of Ferdinand Marcos
- The Maskara festival in Bacolod created in the 1980s by the local government to distract attention away from economic crisis affecting Negros
- The comic book sa Gitna ng Unos that characterized Mar Roxas as a hero during the Typhoon Yolanda rescue and relief mission in Leyte
- The busts and statues of historical figures such as Jose Rizal and Andres Bonifacio in every school or town center
- Shepard Fairey’s “Hope” poster of Barack Obama
- Propaganda pamphlets during World War II
- The racially-charged advertisements of the United Colors of Benetton
- Chinese revolutionary opera that showcased the Cultural Revolution
- Brillante Mendoza’s Netflix series Amo
What response do these artworks intend to draw from its audience? What dynamics of power shape these works? What dominant beliefs or ideologies are implicit in them? How does this affect your reception of these works of art?
Meanwhile, artists who are aware of art’s influence as an ideological tool can explicitly use art as a political weapon. Art can be an instrument to counter inequalities and injustice. Artists can create art to challenge dominant ideologies. Art can help in effecting social change by raising awareness or forging solidarity. Consider the following examples:
- Isaac Cordal’s “Politicians Debating Global Warming”
- Telesforo Sungkit’s “I, Higaonon”
- Antipas Delotavo’s “Itak sa Puso ni Mang Juan and “Katas”
- Lino Brocka’s Orapronobis
- Banksy’s “Flower Thrower”
- Dmitri Vrubel’s “My God, Help Me to Survive this Deadly Love”
- The dance of the labi that Davao indigenous groups performed as a form of resistance against American forces
- Abel Meeropol’s “Strange Fruit” sung by Billie Holiday
- Felix Gonzales-Torres’s “Untitled” (Portrait of Russ in L.A.)
- Pussy Riot’s “Virgin Mary, Put Putin Away”
Activity 3.3. Narrative and advertising
Activity 3.3. Narrative and advertising
Approx. 1 hour
Your teacher will assign you to work on this assignment in groups.
Your group should be able to collect old magazines and choose an advertisement that combine visual and texts. Analyze the advertisement by considering the following:
- What is it advertising?
- What narrative is revealed?
- What is it selling?
- Is the ad effective?
Make a visual and oral presentation of your analysis and prepare it in class.
Conclusion
Conclusion
In this module, you have seen that the autonomy of art can be a problematic proposition when human experiences are “aestheticized” or made beautiful for its own sake. Thus, art in this mode become incapable of contributing to social action. By taking into account ideology’s role in representing the imaginary relations between people and social conditions, we establish that all art is inescapably political. There are implicit religious, sociopolitical, ethical, and moral codes embedded in art works. Aesthetics can’t be severed from politics. Furthermore, the radical standpoint in art can also be harnessed. Art as construct can be a powerful means to soothe individuals into submission or stir people into action.
Module 3 Supplement
Module 3 Supplement
Activity S3.1. Art as propaganda, propaganda as art
Activity S3.1. Art as propaganda, propaganda as art
Search on the Web for the terms art and propaganda, and report on the ideas you come across about the notions of art as propaganda and of propaganda as art.
Activity S3.2. Why did Hitler steal art?
Activity S3.2. Why did Hitler steal art?
Read Peter Campbell's account of why Hitler stole art. Discuss how this story relates to Althusser's notion of ideological state apparatuses.
Activity S3.3. Painting a political portrait
Activity S3.3. Painting a political portrait
Read the South China Morning Post's account of how Strategic Communications Laboratories depicted Philippine President Rodrigo Duterte as a "man of action". Discuss how political advertising during the 2016 presidential elections can be related to the idea of art as political discourse.
Activity S3.4. Watch comic Hasan Minhaj's analysis of hip hop, rap, and streaming services
Activity S3.4. Watch comic Hasan Minhaj's analysis of hip hop, rap, and streaming services
Allot 25 minutes
Watch Video 3.1, which is an excerpt of a Netflix episode of Hasan Minhaj's political comedy series, Patriot Act. When you watch the video, pay attention to the following:
- Identify all the different ways that hip hop and rap has been used as a tool for political persuasion.
- To what governments succeed in using hip hop and rap to push their own message?
- How have streaming services such as YouTube and Spotify influenced the way that artists, governments, and the public experience and relate to anti-establishment music?
Keep this activity in mind when you tackle Module 9, which discusses how art is distributed.
Video 3.1. Hasan Minhaj on Hip Hop And Streaming (Patriot Act, 2019)
Activity S3.5 (COVID-19 Special Activity): Art as a political instrument during health crises
Activity S3.5 (COVID-19 Special Activity): Art as a political instrument during health crises
In this module, we saw how art can be mobilized by different kinds of political actors and agents in order to advance an agenda, which is often an ideological one. This is certainly true during times of crises such as wars (look up Rosie the Riveter from World War II, or how the US exported America pop culture during the Cold War to exert "soft power", for example). What about during the time of pandemics or epidemics, especially given that health outbreaks have occurred many times in human history and have profoundly shaped society?
Choose a partner that you feel you have the least in common with in, for example in terms of age, gender, sexual orientation, and interests. As a pair, discuss the following questions:
- Can you find examples from health crises in which the arts was mobilized by authorities for social or political purposes?
- What were the authorities' intent?
- To what extend did they succeed?
Report your findings to the class.
Readings, Resources, and References
Readings, Resources, and References
Required Readings
Althusser, Louis. (1971) “Ideology and Ideological State Apparatuses.” In Critical Theory Since Plato, 1298-1308, edited by Hazard Adams. Belmont, CA; Wadsworth Publishing.
Felluga, Dino. "Modules on Althusser: On Ideology." Introductory Guide to Critical Theory. (2011 June) Purdue U. https://www.cla.purdue.edu/english/theory/marxism/modules/althusserideology.html
Felluga, Dino. "Modules on Althusser: On Ideological State Apparatuses." Introductory Guide to Critical Theory. (2011 June) Purdue U. https://www.cla.purdue.edu/english/theory/marxism/modules/althusserISAs.html
Lopez, Salvador P. (1940). “Literature and Society.” In The Likhaan Anthology of Philippine Literature in English, 400-409, edited by Gemino H. Abad. Quezon City: University of the Philippines Press.
References
Barker, C. (2018, April 10). Fifteen years after looting, thousands of artefacts are still missing from Iraq’s national museum. Retrieved January 23, 2019, from http://theconversation.com/fifteen-years-after-looting-thousands-of-artefacts-are-still-missing-from-iraqs-national-museum-93949
Burger, Peter. (1984). “On the Problem of the Autonomy of Art in Bourgeois Society.” In Art in Modern Culture, 51-63, edited by Francis Frascina and Jonathan Harris. Translated from the German by Michael Shaw. London: Phaidon Press Limited.
Cajilig, P. (2013). Practices of Identification in the Creation and Consumption of Filipino Novelty T-shirts (MA Thesis). University of the Philippines, Diliman. Retrieved from http://www.academia.edu/12098581/Practices_of_Identification_in_the_Creation_and_Consumption_of_Filipino_Novelty_T-shirts
Griffin, A. (2018, June 28). Hannah Gadsby rewrites the way we tell jokes in “Nanette.” Retrieved January 23, 2019, from https://qz.com/quartzy/1315843/hannah-gadsbys-nannette-is-an-incisive-deconstruction-of-comedy/
Kant, Immanuel. (1971) “Explanation of the Beautiful Resulting from the Second Moment” (from Critique of Judgment.” In Critical Theory Since Plato, 425, edited by Hazard Adams. Belmont, CA; Wadsworth Publishing.
Kinzer, S. (2001, February 14). ARTS IN AMERICA; “Avant-Garde” Artists Come In From the Cold (War). The New York Times. https://www.nytimes.com/2001/02/14/arts/arts-in-america-avant-garde-artists-come-in-from-the-cold-war.html
Moss, S. (2013, April 18). A to Z of Wagner: G is for Gesamtkunstwerk. The Guardian. Retrieved from https://www.theguardian.com/music/musicblog/2013/apr/18/a-z-wagner-gesamtkunstwerk
Paglia, Camille. (1990). “Sex and Violence, Or Nature and Art.” In Sexual Personae, 8-39. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
Patriot Act. (2019). Hip Hop And Streaming | Patriot Act with Hasan Minhaj | Netflix. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MEZV6EE8JMA
Piehler, G. K., & Myers, S. (2018, May 25). How one “Rosie the Riveter” poster won out over all the others and became a symbol of female empowerment. The Conversation. http://theconversation.com/how-one-rosie-the-riveter-poster-won-out-over-all-the-others-and-became-a-symbol-of-female-empowerment-96496
Sharp, G. (2011, January 4). Myth-Making and the “We Can Do It!” Poster—Sociological Images. Sociological Images. https://thesocietypages.org/socimages/2011/01/04/myth-making-and-the-we-can-do-it-poster/
Snowden, F. M. (2019). Epidemics and society: From the black death to the present. Yale University Press. https://yalebooks.yale.edu/book/9780300192216/epidemics-and-society
Wigglesworth, Hazel J. (2004). “Introduction.” In The Song from the Mango Tree: A Manobo Raconteur Introduces His Repertoire of Oral Literature with a Favourite Trickster Narrative, 1-13, edited and translated by Hazel Wigglesworth with Ampatuan Ampalid. Manila: Linguistic Society of the Philippines.
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