Land use and behavior

* Corresponding author

1. Cao, J.* (2025). Transformative impacts of machine learning applications in land use-travel research. Artificial Intelligence for Transportation, 2, 100021. 

2. Cao, J.* and Tao, T. (2025). Can an identified environmental correlate of car ownership serve as a practical planning tool? Transportation Research Part A, 191, 104304. 

3. Cui, M., Yu, L., Dai, Z.*, Wu, Y., Wang, Y., and Cao, J. (2025). Metro ridership resilience and built environment: Exploring nonlinear dynamics and impacts. Transportation Research Part D, 147, 104852. 

4. Li, W., Cao, J.*, Hou, Q., and Wei, Y. (2025). Which matters to commuting-related CO2 emissions? Parking, population suburbanization, or employment decentralization? Transportation Research Part D, 139, 104461. 

5. Wang, J., Sun, Z., Cao, J.*, Liu, K. and Wang, D. (2025). Counterproductive development: New towns may produce and attract more long-distance commuting. Transportation Research Part D, 147, 104958. 

6. Zhou, M., Huang C., Yang, Y., Cao, J.*, and Huang, Y. (2025). Exploring the nonlinear association between bike-sharing and household car ownership in Shenzhen, China. Transport Policy, 172, 103759. 

7. Ding, C. *, Wang, Y., Cao, X., Chen, Y., Yang, J., and Yu, B. (2024). Revisiting residential self-selection and travel behavior connection using a double machine learning approach. Transportation Research Part D, 128, 104089.

8. Tao, T.* and Cao, J. (2024). Ineffective built environment interventions: how to reduce driving in American suburbs? Transportation Research Part A, 179, 103924. 

9. Sun, S., Guo, L.*, Yang, S., and Cao, J.* (2024). Exploring the contributions of Ebike ownership, transit access, and the built environment to car ownership in a developing city. Journal of Transport Geography, 116, 103834. 

10. Sun, S., Yang, S.*, Guo, L.*, and Cao, J. (2024). Individual and synergistic associations among transit allowance, land use, and transit commuting. Transportation Research Part D, 128, 104110. 

11. Tao, T., Cao, J.*, and Wu, X. (2024). The road less traveled: Does rail transit matter? Journal of Planning Education and Research, 44 (2), 923-937. 

12. Yang, L., Cao, X. J.*, Wang, Y., Lian, Y., and Guo, Z. (2024). Does metro expansion matter? Metro network enhances metro mode share of commuters living away from stations, but not those near station. Travel Behaviour and Society, 34, 100664. 

13. Cao, J.* and Tao, T. (2023). Using machine-learning models to understand nonlinear relationships between land use and travel. Transportation Research Part D, 123, 103930. 

14. Ding, C., Zhou, X., Cao, X.*, and Yang, J. (2023). Spatial and mediation analysis of the influences of residential and workplace built environments on commuting mode choice. Transportation Research Part A, 171, 103662. 

15. Shao, Q., Zhang, W.*, Cao, J., and Yang, J. (2023). Built environment interventions for emission mitigation: A machine learning analysis of travel-related CO2 in a developing city. Journal of Transport Geography, 110, 103632. 

16. Tao, T.* and Cao, J. (2023). Exploring nonlinear and collective influences of regional and local built environment characteristics on travel distances by mode. Journal of Transport Geography, 109, 103599. 

17. Tao, T., Wu, X., Cao, J.*, Fan, Y., Das, K., and Ramaswami, A. (2023). Exploring the non-linear relationship between the built environment and active travel in the Twin Cities. Journal of Planning Education and Research, 43 (3), 637-652.

18. Wang, J., Cao, X., Liu,K.*, and Wang, D. (2023). Exploring the nonlinear effects of built environment characteristics on customized bus service. Transportation Research Part D, 114, 103523. 

19. Yin, C., Cao, J., Sun, B.,* and Liu, J. (2023). Exploring built environment correlates of walking for different purposes: Evidence for substitution. Journal of Transport Geography, 106, 103505. 

20. Ding, C., Liu, T., Cao, X.*, and Tian, Li (2022). Illustrating nonlinear effects of the built environment on housing renters’ transit commuting. Transportation Research Part D, 112, 103503. 

21. Ma, L.*, Liu, Y., Cao, J., Ye, R. (2022). The impact of perceived racism on walking behavior during the COVID-19 lockdown. Transportation Research Part D, 109, 103335. 

22. Shao, Q., Zhang, W.*, Cao, X., and Yang, J. (2022). Nonlinear and interactive effects of land use and motorcycles/E-bikes on car ownership. Transportation Research Part D, 102, 103115. 

23. Tao, T. and Cao, J.* (2022). Examining motivations for owning autonomous vehicles: Implications for land use and transportation. Journal of Transport Geography, 102, 103361. 

24. Ding, C., Cao, X.*, Yu, B., and Ju, Y. (2021). Non-linear associations between zonal built environment attributes and transit commuting mode choice accounting for spatial heterogeneity. Transportation Research Part A, 148, 22-35.

25. Ding, C., Zhang. H., Yang, L., and Cao, X.* (2021). Analysis of the research problem on the synergistic effect between the built environment and transportation demand management. Journal of Human Settlements in West China, 36 (4), 45-51. (In Chinese)

26. Tao, T.* and Cao, J. (2021). Exploring the interaction effect of poverty concentration and transit service on highway traffic during the COVID-19 lockdown. Journal of Transport and Land Use, 14 (1), 1149-1164.

27. Yang, J., Cao, J.*, and Zhou, Y. (2021). Elaborating nonlinear association and synergies of subway access and land uses with urban vitality in Shenzhen. Transportation Research Part A, 144, 74-88.

28. Duncan, M.* and Cao, J. (2020). Marginal impacts of park-and-ride facilities in the Twin Cities region of the US. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 2674 (11), 403-413.

29. Guan, X., Wang, D.*, and Cao, X. (2020). The role of residential self-selection in land use-travel research: A review of recent findings. Transport Reviews, 40 (3), 267-287.

30. Hu, L., Cao, J., and Yang, J. (2020). Planning for accessibility. Transportation Research Part D, 88, 102575. (Editorial) 

31. Shao, Q., Zhang, W.*, Cao, X., Yang, J., and Yin, J. (2020). Threshold and moderating effects of land use on metro ridership in Shenzhen: Implications for TOD planning. Journal of Transport Geography, 89, 102878.

32. Tao, T.*, Wang, J., and Cao, X. (2020). Exploring the non-linear associations between spatial attributes and walking distance to transit. Journal of Transport Geography, 82, 102560.

33. Yin, C., Cao, J.*, and Sun, B. (2020). Examining non-linear associations between population density and waist-hip ratio: An application of gradient boosting decision trees. Cities, 107, 102899. 

34. Zhang, W., Zhao, Y., Cao, X.*, Lu, D., and Chai, Y. (2020). Nonlinear effect of accessibility on car ownership in Beijing: Pedestrian-scale neighborhood planning. Transportation Research Part D, 86, 102445

35. Cao, X.* (2019). Examining the effect of the Hiawatha LRT on auto use in the Twin Cities. Transport Policy, 81, 284-292. 

36. Cao, J.* and Duncan, M. (2019). Associations between distance, quality, and safety when walking from a park-and-ride facility to the transit station in the Twin Cities. Journal of Planning Education and Research, 39 (4), 496-507.

37. Cao, X., Naess, P.*, and Wolday, F. (2019). Examining the effects of the built environment on auto ownership in two Norwegian urban regions. Transportation Research Part D, 67, 464-474.

38. Ding, C. and Cao, X.* (2019). How does the built environment at residential and work locations affect car ownership? An application of cross-classified multilevel model. Journal of Transport Geography, 75, 37-45.

39. Ding, C., Cao, X.*, Dong, M., Zhang, Y., and Yang, J. (2019). Non-linear relationships between built environment characteristics and electric-bike ownership in Zhongshan, China. Transportation Research Part D, 75, 286-296. 

40. Ding, C., Cao, X.*, and Liu, C. (2019). How does the station-area built environment influence Metrorail ridership? Using gradient boosting decision trees to identify non-linear thresholds. Journal of Transport Geography, 77, 70-78.

41. Huang, X.*, Cao, X., Yin, J., and Cao, X. (2019). Can metro transit reduce driving? Evidence from Xi’an, China. Transport Policy, 81, 350-359. 

42. Ma, L.* and Cao, J. (2019). How perceptions mediate the effects of the built environment on travel behavior? Transportation, 46, 175-197.

43. Wolday, F., Naess, P., and Cao, X.* (2019). Travel-based residential self-selection: A qualitatively improved understanding from Norway. Cities, 87, 87-102.

44. Wu, X., Tao, T., Cao, J.*, Fan, Y., and Ramaswami, A. (2019). Examining threshold effects of built environment elements on travel-related carbon-dioxide emissions. Transportation Research Part D, 75, 1-12.

45. Zhu, W., Ding, C., and Cao, X.* (2019). Built environment effects on commuting energy consumption: Insights from on-board diagnostics data of personal vehicles. Transportation Research Part D, 67, 565-575.

46. Ding, C., Cao, X.*, and Naess, P. (2018). Applying gradient boosting decision trees to examine non-linear effects of the built environment on driving distance in Oslo. Transportation Research Part A, 110, 107-117. 

47. Ding, C., Cao, X.*, and Wang, Y. (2018). Synergistic effects of the built environment and commuting programs on commute mode choice. Transportation Research Part A, 118. 104-118.

48. Wolday, F., Cao, X.*, and Naess, P. (2018). Examining factors that keep residents with high transit preference away from transit-rich zones and associated behavior outcomes. Journal of Transport Geography, 66, 224-234.

49. Cao, X. (2017). Land use and transportation in China. Transportation Research Part D, 52, 423-427. (Editorial)

50. Cao, X., Boarnet, M., and Cao, X. (2017). Low carbon cities: land use and transportation intervention. Journal of Regional Science, 57, 467-469. (Editorial)

51. Cao, X. and Ermagun, A. (2017). The influences of the Hiawatha LRT on changes in travel behavior: A retrospective study on movers. Urban Studies, 54 (11), 2504-2520. 

52. Chang, A., Miranda-Moreno, L., Cao, J., and Welle, B. (2017). The effect of BRT implementation and streetscape redesign on physical activity: A case study of Mexico City. Transportation Research Part A, 100, 337-347

53. Huang, X., Cao, X., Yin, J., and Cao, X. (2017). Effects of metro transit on the ownership of mobility instruments in Xi’an, China. Transportation Research Part D, 52, 495-505. 

54. Næss, P., Cao, X., and Strand, A. (2017). WhichD’s are the important ones? The effects of built environment characteristics on driving distance in Oslo and Stavanger. Journal of Transport and Land Use, 10 (1), 945-964. 

55. Wang, D. and Cao, X. (2017). Impacts of the built environment on activity-travel behavior: are there differences between public and private housing residents in Hong Kong? Transportation Research Part A, 103, 25-35. 

56. Wang, J. and Cao, X. (2017). Exploring built environment correlates of walking distance of transit egress trips in the Twin Cities. Journal of Transport Geography, 64, 132-138. 

57. Cao, X. and Chatman, D. (2016). How will smart growth land use policies affect travel? A theoretical discussion on the importance of residential sorting. Environment and Planning B, 43 (1), 58-73.

58. Aditjandra, P. T., Cao, X., and Mulley, C. (2016). Exploring changes in public transport use and walking following residential relocation: a British case study. Journal of Transport and Land Use, 9 (3), 77-95.

59. Huang, X., Cao, X., and Cao, J. (2016). The association between transit accessibility and auto ownership: Evidence from Guangzhou,China. Transportation Planning and Technology, 39 (3), 269-283.

60. Huang, X., Cao, X., Cao, X., and Yin, J. (2016). How does the propensity of living near rail transit moderate the influence of rail transit on transit trip frequency in Xi’an? Journal of Transport Geography, 54, 194-204.

61. Cao, X. (2015). Heterogeneous effects of neighborhood type on commute mode choice: An exploration of residential dissonance in the Twin Cities. Journal of Transport Geography, 48, 188-196. 

62. Cao, X. (2015). Examining the impacts of neighborhood design and residential self-selection on active travel: A methodological assessment. Urban Geography, 36 (2), 236-255. 

63. Cao, X. (2015). Residential preference and choice of movers in light rail neighborhoods in Minneapolis, Minnesota. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 2494, 1-10. 

64. Cao, X. (2015). Examiningthe relationships between neighborhood built environment and travel behavior: A review from US perspective. Urban Planning International, 4, 46-52. (in Chinese)

65. Schoner, J. E., Cao, X., and Levinson, D. (2015). Catalysts and magnets: Built environment and bicycle commuting. Journal of Transport Geography, 47, 100-108. 

66. Cao, J. (2014). Residential self-selection in the relationship between the built environment and travel behavior: Introduction to the special issue. Journal of Transport and Land Use, 7 (3), 1-3. (Editorial)

67.  Cao, J. and Cao, X. (2014). The impacts of LRT, neighborhood characteristics, and self-selection on auto ownership: Evidence from Twin Cities. Urban Studies, 51 (10), 2068-2087.

68. Cao, X. and Schoner, J. (2014). The influence of light rail transit on transit uses: An exploration of station area residents along the Hiawatha line in Minneapolis. Transportation Research Part A, 59 (1), 134-143. 

69. Schoner, J. and Cao, X. (2014). Walking for purpose and pleasure: Influences of light rail transit, the built environment, and residential self-selection on pedestrian travel. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 2462, 67-76.

70. Cao, X. and Fan, Y. (2012). Exploring the influences of density on travel behavior using propensity score matching. Environment and Planning B, 39 (5), 459-470. 

71. Aditjandra, P. T. , Cao, X., and Mulley, C. (2012). Understanding neighbourhood design impact on travel behaviour: An Application of structural equations model to the British micro-analysis data. Transportation Research Part A, 46 (1), 22-32.

72. Cao, X. (2010). Exploring causaleffects of neighborhood type on walking behavior using stratification on the propensity score. Environment and Planning A, 42 (2), 487-504.

73. Cao, X., Mokhtarian, P. L., and Handy, S. L. (2010). Neighborhood design and the accessibility of the Elderly: An empirical analysis in Northern California. The International Journal of Sustainable Transportation, 4 (6), 347-371.

74. Cao, X., Xu, Z., and Fan, Y. (2010). Exploring the connections among residential location,self-selection, and driving: Propensity score matching with multiple treatments. Transportation Research Part A, 44 (10), 797-805. 

75. Cao, X. (2009). Disentangling the influence of neighborhood type and self-selection on driving behavior: An application of sample selection model. Transportation, 36 (2), 207-222.

76. Cao, X., Mokhtarian, P. L., and Handy, S. L. (2009). The relationship between the built environment and nonwork travel: A case study of Northern California. Transportation Research Part A, 43 (5), 548-559.

77. Cao, X., Mokhtarian, P. L., and Handy, S. L. (2009). Examining the impacts of residential self-selection on travel behavior: A focus on empirical findings. Transport Reviews, 29 (3), 359-395. [One of the 30 best articles in the 30 year history of the journal] 

78. Cao, X., Mokhtarian, P. L., and Handy, S. L. (2009). No particular place to go: An empirical analysis of travel for the sake of travel. Environment and Behavior, 41 (2), 233-257. 

79. Cao, X. (2008). Is alternative development undersupplied? An examination of residential preferences and choices of Northern California movers. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 2077, 97-105.

80. Cao, X., Mokhtarian, P. L., and Handy, S. L. (2008). Differentiating the influence of accessibility, attitudes, and demographics on stop participation and frequency during the evening commute. Environment and Planning B, 35 (3), 431-442. 

81. Handy, S. L., Cao, X., and Mokhtarian, P. L. (2008). The causal influence of neighborhood design on physical activity within the neighborhood: Evidencefrom Northern California. American Journal of Health Promotion, 22 (5), 350-358. 

82. Handy, S. L., Cao, X., and Mokhtarian, P. L. (2008). Neighborhood design and children’s outdoor play: Evidence from Northern California. Children, Youth and Environments, 18 (2), 160-179.

83. Hough, J., Cao, X., and Handy, S. (2008). Exploring travel behavior of elderly women in rural and small urban North Dakota: An ecological modelingapproach. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 2082, 125-131. 

84. Mokhtarian, P. L. and Cao, X. (2008). Examining the impacts of residential self-selection on travel behavior: A focus on methodologies. Transportation Research Part B, 42 (3), 204-228.

85. Cao, X., Mokhtarian, P. L., and Handy, S. L. (2007). Do changes in neighborhood characteristics lead to changes in travel behavior? A structural equationsmodeling approach. Transportation, 34 (5), 535-556. 

86. Cao, X., Mokhtarian, P. L., and Handy, S. L. (2007). Cross-sectional and quasi-panel explorations of the connection between the built environment and autoownership. Environment and Planning A, 39 (4), 830-847. 

87. Cao, X., Handy, S. L., and Mokhtarian, P. L. (2006). The influences of the built environment and residential self-selection on pedestrian behavior:Evidence from Austin, TX. Transportation, 33 (1), 1-20. 

88. Cao, X., Mokhtarian, P. L., and Handy, S. L. (2006). Neighborhood design and vehicle type choice: Evidence from Northern California. Transportation Research Part D, 11 (2), 133-145.

89. Handy, S. L., Cao, X., and Mokhtarian, P. L. (2006). Self-selection in the relationship between built environment and walking: Evidence from Northern California. Journal of the American Planning Association, 72 (1), 55-74. 

90. Goddard, T. B., Handy, S. L., Cao, X., and Mokhtarian, P. L. (2006). Voyage of the S.S. Minivan: Women’s travel behavior in traditional and suburbanneighborhoods. Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, 1956, 141-148.

91. Handy, S. L., Cao, X., and Mokhtarian, P. L. (2005). Correlation or causality between the built environment and travel behavior? Evidence from Northern California. Transportation Research Part D, 10 (6), 427-444.