Risk-taking behavior is engaging in activities that put individuals at substantial risk for harm without considering the negative consequences that follow those behaviors (Horvath & Zuckerman, 1993; Steinberg, 2009). The negative effects that are a result of risk-taking behaviors are what motivate research for the search on why people engage in risk taking behavior... what causes risk-taking behavior? 

Risk-taking was operationalized using the Risky, Impulsive, and Self-Destructive Behavior Questionnaire (RISQ) (Naomi Sadeh & Arielle Baskin-Sommers, 2017). The RISQ is a 38 item self-report measure looking at lifetime frequency, frequency in the past month, age of onset of engaging in risky behavior and whether the behavior resulted in any consequences. The RISQ operationalized risk-taking behavior through these domains: aggression, self-harm, gambling, impulsive spending/driving, impulsive eating, risky sex, illegal behavior, and alcohol use. 

The RISQ was shortened and converted into a continuous scale for the purposes of this class. Each question is on a 0-100 Scale, higher scores indicated higher levels of life time frequency of engaging in 10 of the 38 risky behaviors listed in the RISQ. 

Sample questions: 

In your lifetime, how often have you: 

• Drove 30mph or faster over the speed limit 

• Drank alcohol until passed out or blacked out 

• Bought expensive items you could not afford on the spur of the moment

The RISQ has excellent internal consistency reliability (alpha= .92); good convergent, concurrent, and discriminate validity, and found promising support for construct validity (Naomi Sadeh & Arielle Baskin-Sommers, 2017). 

We measured risk-taking behavior in a variety of ways for observational research, such as...

1. The frequency of drinks ordered in the span of five minutes at a bar

2. Jay walking 

3. Not coming to a complete stop at a stop sign 

Selected Student Writings 

The Intersection of Socioeconomic Status and Risk-Taking Behavior

Samantha Dillard

We encounter situations every single day that put us face to face with different degrees of risk. When navigating these situations, different levels of risk coincide with different levels of reward. It is how we navigate and these situations that determines what is known as risk taking. Some options have less outcome uncertainty than others, however, they oftentimes yield less return. The idea of risk taking refers to choosing actions that have wider ranges of outcome variability and is usually associated with a greater reward (Figner & Weber, 2011).

It is easy to see how risk-taking may be appealing to us and why there have been numerous studies conducted on it already, but it is its complexity that makes it such a continuously interesting research topic to this day. This is because risk taking behaviors are context-dependent, both the decision maker and decision domain play into the ultimate decision of action (Figner & Weber, 2011). An example of one of these contextual variables is socioeconomic status (SES). We believe that a higher SES will lead to a greater participation of risk-taking behaviors. These compounding variables influence our risk assessment through two key behavior systems known as the behavioral approach and inhibition systems, which processes rewards and evaluate potential threats respectively, and in turn, contributes to risk-taking behavior (Anderson & Galinsky, 2006). This why an individual of a higher SES would be more likely to engage in risk taking. The security of both a high social and economic status would not only appeal to the behavioral approach system through more attractive outcomes, but also limit the inhibition system through the decrease of perceived consequences and reservations. This is what is commonly referred to as the Approach/Inhibition theory of power.

The causes of risk-taking behavior both on an individual and a collective basis can better help researchers in predicting human behavior and understanding social interactions and systems which is why it is important to understand how a higher socioeconomic status may contribute to the decision-making process. Evolutionary theorists have argued that there is an appeal to when individual engages in risky behaviors due to an implicit message of competency to potential mates; not only are they resilient, but they can also endure or overcome any potential consequences risky behaviors might lead to, which demonstrates fitness and status (Zahavi & Zahavi, 1999). More directly related studies have also provided support for the Approach/Inhibition theory of power in that power leads to an increase in positive and decrease in negative emotions, a stronger interest in pursuing rewards, as well as a decrease in attention to threatening information (Anderson & Berdahl, 2002; Anderson & Galinsky, 2006). Anderson and Galinsky (2006) also found that greater power lead to a stronger tolerance and preference for risk. These studies centered around the relationship of power and risk-taking behaviors but how far removed is socio-economic status’ influence from that of power?

Greater socio-economic status leads to more power through social influence and economic security, but the question is whether it’s direct relationship to risk-taking behaviors are comparable to those found in studies centered around power. The question is a deeper, more focused dive into the relationship of power and risk: How does socio-economic status cause risk- taking behaviors; and if it does, would a higher SES encourage more risk-taking?

The Influence of Peer-Pressure and Risk-Taking in Adolescents

Hannah Holloway

The study of peer pressure and social influences on adolescent risk-taking behavior has been studied and discussed extensively in the pre-existing literature. Risk-taking behavior, according to Romer et. al (2017) is sensation seeking or impulsive behavior, which can either stay constant from childhood, or peak in adolescence. Some of these behaviors include substance use and abuse, premature sexual behavior, risky driving, homicidal and suicidal acts, and delinquency (Igra & Irwin, 1996). People are much more likely to engage in risk-taking behavior during adolescence (Steinberg, 2007), causing many harmful consequences; these can include physical and mental health problems, legal convictions, jail time, and harm to themselves and others. Therefore, many experts agree that risk-taking behavior is a threat to the well-being of many young people and adults alike, and an effort to study the causes of these behaviors is beneficial to the functioning of society (Blum & Nelson-Mmari, 2004). Many studies have theorized that peer pressure has a role in increasing risk-taking behavior; it was found that increased impulsiveness among peers may be due to increased reward-responsiveness, while older age was likely to act as a protective factor of risk-taking behaviors (Reiniers et. al, 2016). Studies that have investigated the neurobiological processes behind peer-related risk-taking behavior have recognized the role of imbalances in the subcortical limbic regions, highlighting the tendency of these adolescents’ systems to be more influenced by areas related to reward and motivation over those of cognitive control (Romer et. al, 2017, Casey et. al, 2011). Researchers in recent years have branched out to study the role of other factors in peer-pressure and risk-taking behavior, such as gender, culture, and mental illness (McCoy et. al, 2017, Pollack et. al, 2019, Bahramnejad et. al, 2019).

Check out the research below that the students of the Spring 2023 PSYC 300 class have conducted on this topic!