Competency: Draws conclusion from research findings, formulates recommendations, lists references and presents a written research report.
What is Summary?
To start with, summarize what one has attempted to do and the results one has achieved; one may restate the original research questions or hypotheses and indicate whether one has supported or rejected them. Briefly summarize everything covered in the first three chapters and the findings portion of chapter four (results) (Mutai, 2001, p.35).
The summary reminds and informs the reader about the purpose of the study, the process used to collect, analyze data, and the major findings of the study. A summary must reflect as accurately as possible the body of one’s report (Mugenda & Mugenda, 2003, p.151)
In summarizing the results, keep in mind the importance of inter-chapter consistency. For most dissertations, the statement of the problem in chapter one, the literature review in chapter two; the explanation of methodology in chapter three; the presentation of results in chapter four; and the synthesis and interpretation of findings in chapter five should be arranged in a consistent manner. One should summarize these without the introduction or addition of new irrelevant information (Mutai, 2001, p.62).
The summary serves the following three purposes:
1. It refocuses the reader’s attention in the main issues and findings: by encapsulating the varied details presented.
2. It qualifies some of the findings (when appropriate): by stressing methodological limitations and alternative limitations of research.
1. It may suggest promising directions for future research: based upon the experience of the researcher. It also highlights serendipitous findings and generalizes research results in theoretical findings (Mutai, 2001, pp.62 – 63).
In summarizing results, one should find that the general-to-specific pattern works well. Begin with the general, and support it with appropriate details. Finally, increase the clarity of the summary section by using appropriate transitional cues. One can use sequencing words such as the following: first; also, next; finally (Mutai, 2001, p.63). The final chapter should not introduce any new data or analysis into the report. Everything that was to be tested or evaluated should have been included in prior chapters. Only summation of one’s findings appears in the final chapter, making it relatively brief (Mutai, 2001, p.63).
What is Conclusion?
One needs to draw together the threads of research to arrive at some general conclusions. In other words, one recapitulates the ideas of the dissertation in terms of the research problem, or objectives and tie up both ends neatly. By and large, the conclusions are drawn by logical inference from findings. The conclusion verifies or disproves the premises or hypotheses upon which the investigation has been conducted. Care should be taken to state a conclusion for each objective or problem delimited in the proposal or stamen of the research objectives. Conclusions should flow logically from the findings. But since drawing conclusions involves the human process, it should help avoid this inherent problem (Mutai, 2001, p.35).
The conclusion culminates in the research report and is of utmost importance to one’s readers because it answers the questions that sparked the collected and analysis of the data in the first place. In concluding one’s report, it is important to discuss the practical application and implications of one’s findings in the real world. Although one is supposed to have interpreted evidence at every step of one’s analysis, one’s conclusions pull the strands together in a broader perspective and indicate possible action, where appropriate (Mugenda & Mugenda, 2003, p.151).
In the main text of the conclusion section, one needs to draw together the threads of the research to arrive at some general conclusions and, perhaps, suggest some ways forward. Rather than let the report fizzle out as it reaches the end, this part of the report should be constructive and positive. Conclusions should not contain any ideas not previously raised in the report. It should state in unqualified terms what the findings are. The findings should then be related to other evidence or hypotheses described in the main body, including a comparison with other similar studies. Where appropriate, a variety of options arising from the study should be explained. The content of the conclusion logically preceded it. In tying these materials together, the conclusion can perform one of the three functions:
1. Recapitulate the ideas: of the paper in terms of the thesis statement returns to the first paragraph or so, and ties up both ends neatly.
2. Extend a challenge: usually reserved for the problem-solving paper. Such a conclusion may call on the reader himself to help affect the solution by telling him what to do.
3. Draw inferences: if opposing ideas have been presented, the conclusions may challenge the reader to accept one or the other of the ideas or at least to consider their relative value (Mutai, 2001, pp.63 – 64).
Parameters of Conclusions
The following points should be considered when writing the conclusion section:
1. Write the conclusions at a scope and level of generality justified by the data presentation.
2. Make necessary qualifications with care and caution.
3. Coordinate the conclusion with the tentative acceptance or rejection of the research hypotheses presented, or with the objectives or questions posed.
4. Present the conclusions in a form that other investigators can understand and subsequently verify.
5. Ensure that conclusions are within the limits of the results obtained and must be sound and based on the thesis’s body.
6. The conclusions are drawn by inference, either inductive or deductive, from the findings; the conclusions verify or deny the premises, or hypotheses upon which the investigation has been conducted; hence care should be taken to state a conclusion for each objective or problem delimited in the proposal or statement of the research objectives.
7. Ensure that conclusions should flow logically from the findings, but since drawing conclusions involves the human process, it should help one avoid this inherent problem.
8. Discuss the conclusions in the light of the present and future practices, for theory, and additional needed investigations.
9. Give an indication of the usefulness of the research: who could benefit from what one has done? How? What theories, discipline, organizations, groups, etc. would like to know what one has uncovered, or concluded? What is the value of one’s effort? (Mutai, 2001, pp.64 – 65).
Precautions in Writing Conclusions
One should always bear in mind that feeble conclusions can easily mar the total effectiveness of the report. Several factors contribute to weak conclusions as follows:
1. The sense that the writer is in haste to finish up the dissertation may be due to a shortage of time or a lack of ideas.
2. Obviousness is another factor: terms like “in conclusion,” or any of its relatives, are unnecessary in concluding paragraphs. Exceptional to this rule do exist, but logically, once one has given the subheading i.e., conclusion, there is no need to keep on repeating it.
3. Moralizing, apologizing, or congratulating weakens the conclusions too. Phrases like, “this study having tried to prove ...,” “having shown ...,” “hopefully has given you a better understanding ...,” or “hopefully inspiring you ...” are inappropriate and usually insulting to the reader’s intelligence (Mutai, 2001, pp.65 – 66).
What is Recommendation?
One’s summary and conclusions should lead logically to one’s recommendations. Recommendations must be consistent with the purpose of the study, its objectives, the evidence presented by the data, and the interpretations are given. Recommendations should be practical and achievable (Mugenda & Mugenda, 2003, pp.151 – 152).
The recommendations concerning the action to be taken the conclusions. Where recommendations involve policy decisions, state them completely as possible, including who should do what, when, and why (Mutai, 2001, p.35).
Common recommendations that researchers often make include:
1. Areas of further research: emphasizing the questions in the study that remain unanswered and therefore, should be explored further.
2. Methodological issues: that could be addressed and refined to improve future research in the areas of study.
3. Actions that should be taken to address the problem based on the research findings: solving specific problems could involve designing and implementing an intervention of the project (Mugenda & Mugenda, 2003, p.152).
The recommendations section should be made as short as possible. Half or one page is sufficient. Use bullets or numbers for each point and make it short and clear. This may include the following:
1. Recommendations concerning the implementation of the research findings, when appropriate, relative to the objectives stated in the purpose of the investigation, most frequently encountered in survey studies and action research.
2. Recommendations for improving the situation guidelines or codes of practice. Many educational studies will have a clear implication for practice. Although one should feel free to make such recommendations, one should again avoid diagnostic assertions or sweeping recommendations beyond the study.
3. The recommendations concerning action to be taken following conclusions. Where recommendations involve policy decisions, some researchers prefer to report any conclusions and leave out recommendations.
4. The researcher is often in the best position to determine recommendations, and if asked to do so, should state them as completely as possible, including who should do what, when, and why. But making recommendations depends not only on the nature of the decision to be made but also on the researcher’s knowledge of the total situation of the problem. In many instances, the researcher does not have this “total picture” of the situation (Mutai, 2001, pp.66 – 67).
How to Write an Abstract?
APA format is the official style of the American Psychological Association and is used in psychology writing as well as other social sciences. These style guidelines specify different aspects of a document's presentation and layout, including how pages are structured, the organization of references, and how citations are made. This format also stipulates the use of an abstract designed to very briefly summarize the key details contained in a paper without providing too much detail.
Why is an Abstract Important in APA Format?
While it is sometimes overlooked or only an afterthought, an abstract is an important part of any academic or professional paper. This brief overview serves as a summary of what your paper contains, so it should succinctly and accurately represent what your paper is about and what the reader can expect to find.
Fortunately, by following a few simple guidelines, you can create an abstract that generates interest in your work and help readers quickly learn if the paper will be of interest to them.
The Basics of an APA Format Abstract
Think of an abstract as a highly condensed summary of your entire paper. The purpose of your abstract is to provide a brief yet thorough overview of your paper. The APA Publication Manual suggests that your abstract should function much like your title page—it should allow the person reading it to quickly determine what your paper is all about.
Your abstract is the first thing that most people will read, and it is usually what informs their decision to read the rest of your paper. A good abstract lets the reader know that your paper is worth reading.
According to the official guidelines of the American Psychological Association, a good abstract should be:
Brief but packed with information. Each sentence must be written with maximum impact in mind. To keep your abstract short, focus on including just four or five of the essential points, concepts, or findings.
Objective and accurate. The abstract's purpose is to report rather than provide commentary. It should also accurately reflect what your paper is about. Only include information that is also included in the body of your paper.
How to Write an Abstract?
First, write your paper. While the abstract will be at the beginning of your paper, it should be the last section that you write. Once you have completed the final draft of your psychology paper, use it as a guide for writing your abstract.
Begin your abstract on a new page and place your running head and page number 2 in the top right-hand corner. You should also center the word "Abstract" at the top of the page.
Keep it short. An abstract should be between 150 to 250 words.1 Exact word counts can vary from journal to journal. If you are writing your paper for a psychology course, your professor may have specific word requirements, so be sure to ask. The abstract should also be written as only one paragraph with no indentation.
Structure of the abstract in the same order as your paper. Begin with a summary of the Introduction, and then continue with a summary of the Method, Results, and Discussion sections of your paper.
Look at other abstracts in professional journals for examples of how to summarize your paper. Notice the main points that the authors chose to mention in the abstract. Use these examples as a guide when choosing the main ideas in your paper.
Write a rough draft of your abstract. While you should aim for brevity, be careful not to make your summary too short. Try to write one to two sentences summarizing each section of your paper. Once you have a rough draft, you can edit for length and clarity.
Ask a friend to read over the abstract. Sometimes having someone look at your abstract with fresh eyes can provide perspective and help you spot possible typos and other errors.