Competency: Selects appropriate quantitative research design and describe sampling procedure and the sample size.

What are the main types of quantitative approaches to research?

It is easier to understand the different types of quantitative research designs if you consider how the researcher designs for control of the variables in the investigation.

If the researcher views quantitative design as a continuum, one end of the range represents a design where the variables are not controlled at all and only observed. Connections amongst variable are only described. At the other end of the spectrum, however, are designs which include a very close control of variables, and relationships amongst those variables are clearly established. In the middle, with experiment design moving from one type to the other, is a range which blends those two extremes together.

Types of Quantitative Research Designs

Descriptive Research

It seeks to describe the current status of an identified variable. These research projects are designed to provide systematic information about a phenomenon. The researcher does not usually begin with an hypothesis, but is likely to develop one after collecting data. The analysis and synthesis of the data provide the test of the hypothesis. Systematic collection of information requires careful selection of the units studied and careful measurement of each variable.

Examples of Descriptive Research:

· A description of how second-grade students spend their time during summer vacation

· A description of the tobacco use habits of teenagers

· A description of how parents feel about the twelve- month school year

· A description of the attitudes of scientists regarding global warming

· A description of the kinds of physical activities that typically occur in nursing homes, and how frequently each occurs.

· A description of the extent to which elementary teachers use math manipulatives

Correlational Research

This attempts to determine the extent of a relationship between two or more variables using statistical data. In this type of design, relationships between and among a number of facts are sought and interpreted. This type of research will recognize trends and patterns in data, but it does not go so far in its analysis to prove causes for these observed patterns. Cause and effect is not the basis of this type of observational research. The data, relationships, and distributions of variables are studied only. Variables are not manipulated; they are only identified and are studied as they occur in a natural setting.

*Sometimes correlational research is considered a type of descriptive research, and not as its own type of research, as no variables are manipulated in the study.

Examples of Correlational Research:

· The relationship between intelligence and self-esteem

· The relationship between diet and anxiety

· The relationship between an aptitude test and success in an algebra course

· The relationship between ACT scores and the freshman grades

· The relationships between the types of activities used in math classrooms and student achievement

· The covariance of smoking and lung disease

Causal-Comparative/Quasi- Experimental Research

It attempts to establish cause- effect relationships among the variables. These types of design are very similar to true experiments, but with some key differences. An independent variable is identified but not manipulated by the experimenter, and effects of the independent variable on the dependent variable are measured. The researcher does not randomly assign groups and must use ones that are naturally formed or pre-existing groups. Identified control groups exposed to the treatment variable are studied and compared to groups who are not.

When analyses and conclusions are made, determining causes must be done carefully, as other variables, both known and unknown, could still affect the outcome. A causal- comparative designed study, described in a New York Times article, "The Case for $320,00 Kindergarten Teachers," illustrates how causation must be thoroughly assessed before firm relationships amongst variables can be made.

Examples of Correlational Research:

· The effect of preschool attendance on social maturity at the end of the first grade

· The effect of taking multivitamins on a students’ school absenteeism

· The effect of gender on algebra achievement

· The effect of part-time employment on the achievement of high school students

· The effect of magnet school participation on student attitude

· The effect of age on lung capacity

Experimental Research

This often called true experimentation, uses the scientific method to establish the cause-effect relationship among a group of variables that make up a study. The true experiment is often thought of as a laboratory study, but this is not always the case; a laboratory setting has nothing to do with it. A true experiment is any study where an effort is made to identify and impose control over all other variables except one. An independent variable is manipulated to determine the effects on the dependent variables. Subjects are randomly assigned to experimental treatments rather than identified in naturally occurring groups

Examples of Experimental Research:

· The effect of a new treatment plan on breast cancer

· The effect of positive reinforcement on attitude toward school

· The effect of teaching with a cooperative group strategy or a traditional lecture approach on students’ achievement

· The effect of a systematic preparation and support system on children who were scheduled for surgery on the amount of psychological upset and cooperation

· A comparison of the effect of personalized instruction vs. traditional instruction on computational skill

What is the basic methodology for a quantitative research design?

The overall structure for a quantitative design is based in the scientific method. It uses deductive reasoning, where the researcher forms an hypothesis, collects data in an investigation of the problem, and then uses the data from the investigation, after analysis is made and conclusions are shared, to prove the hypotheses not false or false. The basic procedure of a quantitative design is:

1. Make your observations about something that is unknown, unexplained, or new. Investigate current theory surrounding your problem or issue.

2. Hypothesize an explanation for those observations.

3. Make a prediction of outcomes based on your hypotheses. Formulate a plan to test your prediction.

4. Collect and process your data. If your prediction was correct, go to step 5. If not, the hypothesis has been proven false. Return to step 2 to form a new hypothesis based on your new knowledge.

5. Verify your findings. Make your final conclusions. Present your findings in an appropriate form for your audience.

Writing the Methods Section

In writing the methods section in a quantitative research, there are sub-topics which a researcher needs to discuss to easily understand what the study is all about. The method section helps researcher to point out each of the process in conducting the study. It is in this part where the step-by-step process in conducting the investigation is explicitly explained. This includes the Research Design, Research Locale, Research Respondents, Research Instrument, Data Gathering Procedure, Statistical Tool, and Ethical Consideration.

Research Design

The methods section of a quantitative study should describe how each objective of your study will be achieved. Be sure to provide enough detail to enable the reader can make an informed assessment of the methods being used to obtain results associated with the research problem.

How to Write:

1. Identify the nature of study being explored (e.g. quantitative or qualitative).

2. Determine which among the research designs is appropriate to be used in your study.

3. Discuss the research design you have decided to use and DO NOT forget to cite an author/s (e.g. Descriptive-Correlation Research Design; you will explain with citation Descriptive, Correlation, and Descriptive-Correlation).

4. Explain how do the identified research design is appropriate to use in your study.

Contextualize the use of the research design to your own research. How will it be used in your study? Provide also citation in your discussion.

Example:

This investigation used descriptive-correlation. Descriptive approach has been utilized for it is a basic research method which examines situation, as it exists in the current state (Hale, 2011). Grand Canyon University (2017) further discussed that it also seeks to describe the current status of a variable or phenomenon. More so, this study will employ correlational research since it includes collecting data to determine the significant relationship between two or more variables to measure. Correlational research is a quantitative method of research which aims to explore and establish the relations of the two variables (Lomax & Li, 2013).

The use of descriptive design in this investigation is to collect data pertaining on the answers of the Grade 11 students particularly on metacognitive strategy and their reading comprehension. The results of this study is thoroughly explained to come up with a rich discussion on the gathered information.

In particular, the study used descriptive correlation research design. The main goal of the investigation is to measure whether there is a significant relationship between the levels of metacognitive strategy and the reading comprehension among the senior high school students of De La Salle schools in Mindanao.

Research Locale

This is the place where you will conduct your study.

How to Write:

1. Briefly describe the place, but make sure to anonymize the name of the school, organization, or community if topic is controversial.

2. Make a justification or criteria on the selection of the place.

3. Lastly, provide a map to country/ region/ location.

Example:

Mindanao has been considered the second largest island in the Philippines. Native ethnic tribes are found in Mindanao which includes Lumad, Tausug, Subanon, Samal, Badjaos of Zamboanga Peninsula, Manobo, Mamanwa, Talaanding, Higaonon, Bagobo, and Moro. Below are the schools which will be part of the study.

School A is located in Mangagoy, Bislig City, Surigao del Sur in the Philippines. It was established in 1963 by the Don Bosco Fathers, the administration and supervision of which was formally turned over to the De La Salle Brothers in 1977.

Subsequently, School B is located in Iligan City, Lanao del Norte, Philippines. It is the first of the third generation of La Salle schools. It is the third La Salle school in the country and the first La Salle school established in Mindanao.

Lastly, School C is formerly Immaculate Conception College-La Salle, and is located in Ozamiz City, Misamis Occidental, Philippines. Originally opened in 1929 by the Society of Jesus in the Philippines, it was turned over to the De La Salle Brothers in the Philippines in 1994.

The names of the institutions can be disclosed since there is already an approval of the Presidents of these De La Salle Schools in Mindanao.

Research Respondents

Are those persons who have been invited to participate in a particular study and have actually taken part in the study.

How to Write:

1. Identify the number of respondents to be part of your research.

2. It is necessary to determine the inclusion criteria or qualification of the respondents in the study.

3. Provide exclusion criteria should also be provided.

4. Include the selection criteria (sampling technique).

5. In general, why those (presumed inclusion criteria) will be considered respondents in the study?

Example:

The respondents of the study were the 394 senior high school students from De La Salle Schools in Mindanao covering all strands offered by the institutions. The students were enrolled to Grade 11 of the De La Salle Schools. The respondents will be chosen through Stratified Random sampling considering the number of population in each section per school. Thus, the researcher set the inclusion criteria that only those enrolled to Grade 11 of De La Salle Schools will be considered as respondents of the study. Furthermore, the Grade 11 students are fit in the study since they are enrolled to a subject Reading and Writing which is offered for 2018-2019 academic year.

Research Instrument

Research Instruments are measurement tools (for example, questionnaires or scales) designed to obtain data on a topic of interest from research subjects.

How to Write:

1. Describe the type of questionnaire will be used in the study.

2. If the questionnaire is taken somewhere, make sure to provide citation.

3. Break the questionnaire into parts. Make sure to reflect all the variables and indicators mentioned in the Conceptual Framework and Theoretical Framework.

4. Mention the point system or the Likert-scale used.

5. Reflect the Mean Range Matrix (it should be in equal distribution).

6. Explain the process of validation and reliability testing of the questionnaire.

Example:

This study utilized two adapted research questionnaires having three parts. The first part measures the profile section of the respondents which includes sex, strands, and school. Second part is the questionnaire from Mokhtari & Reichard (2002) on Metacognitive Awareness of Reading Strategies Inventory (MARSI) Version 1.0. The survey is a thirty (30) item instrument that comprises thirteen (13) measures for global reading strategies, eight (8) for problem-solving strategies, and nine (9) for support reading strategies. These items will be answered using 5 point Liker scale.

As a whole, the survey instrument has only two parts. The first part is the item which measures the metacognitive awareness of reading strategies and the second part contains items for reading comprehension.

The two instruments were validated by experts of the field, and has been pilot tested to ensure that all items in the questionnaire have high internal consistency.

Data Gathering Procedure

This is the process of gathering and measuring information on variables of interest, in an established systematic fashion that enables one to answer stated research statements, test hypotheses, and evaluate outcomes. The data collection component of research is common to all fields of study including physical and social sciences, humanities, business, etc. While methods vary by discipline, the emphasis on ensuring accurate and honest collection remains the same.

How to Write:

1. Explain the process of collecting the data.

2. Start the step in asking permission to conduct the study and ends it on analyzing the data being gathered.

Statistical Tools

This pertains on the statistical analyses to be used in the study. There are two types of statistics such as:

Descriptive Statistics: This is the term given to the analysis of data that helps describe, show or summarize data in a meaningful way such that, for example, patterns might emerge from the data. Descriptive statistics do not, however, allow us to make conclusions beyond the data we have analysed or reach conclusions regarding any hypotheses we might have made. They are simply a way to describe our data.

Inferential Statistics: this allows you to make predictions (“inferences”) from that data. With inferential statistics, you take data from samples and make generalizations about a population.

Example:

Descriptive statistics. Used in this study to determine a) frequency and percentages of the respondents’ demographic profile, and b) the mean and standard deviation of the indicator variables, which showed the extent of metacognitive awareness of strategies and the reading comprehension of the senior high school students.

The study employed Pearson-r. This statistical tool was used to determine the significant relationship between metacognitive awareness of reading strategies and the reading comprehension of the senior high school students.

Ethical Consideration

Philippine National Health Research System (PNHRS) and Philippine Health Research Ethics Board (PHREB) created the National Ethical Guidelines for Health and Health-Related Research 2017 which highlighted the division of two major topic: 1) General Guidelines on ethical review of health research, and 2) the Special Guidelines on specific research areas, methodology, and populations.

With the use of the guidelines, researchers need to explain the following:

1. Informed Consent

2. Vulnerability of the Respondents

3. Risks, Benefits, and Safety

4. Privacy and Confidentiality of Information

5. Qualification of the Researcher