topic 4
south asian civilizations
INDUS RIVER VALLEY CIVILIZATION
ANCIENT RIVER VALLEY CIVILIZATIONS
Embedded Files
Unit 2: Topic 4 - Curriculum guide
Unit 2: Topic 4 - Curriculum guide
Table of Contents
Table of Contents
Unit 2 - Topic 4: Overview................................................................................................................... 1
Unit 2 - Topic 4: Goal, GLE's, & Description...................................................................................... 2
Essential Content - GLEs
Ancillary Content - GLEs
Homework: What Did You Learn in Topic 3?.................................................................................... 3
Student Strategies............................................................................................................................... 4
Caterpillar Writing
Thinking Like a Historian
R.A.C.E. Strategy for Reading
C.E.R. Strategy for Reading and Stating Claims (Claim, Evidence, Reasoning)
Introducing the Indus River Valley Civilizations ..............................................................................5
The Geography of ancient India.........................................................................................................6
Lesson Activity: Vocabulary Words - Homework............................................................................ 7
Lesson Activity: Prior Knowledge Physical and Political Maps ................................................... 8
Lesson Activity: Developing A Claim/Formative Assessment....................................................... 9
Lesson Activity: Developing A Claim...............................................................................................10
Lesson Activity: Developing a Claim/Formative Assessment/Summative Assessment...........11
Lesson Activity: Building Context................................................................................................... 12
Lesson Activity: Developing A Claim/Formative Assessment...................................................... 13
Lesson Activity: Building Context.................................................................................................... 14
Additional Resources for Students to Draw From For Their Research........................................ 15
Modern Day Photographs of Indian Women and Children........................................................... 16
unit 2 - Topic 4: Overview
unit 2 - Topic 4: Overview
Page 1
Topic 4 Description:
Unit 2 Description: Students explore how physical geography and location supported the growth of ancient civilizations, the characteristics of those civilizations, and how their achievements influenced other cultures. Students will investigate different types of maps and will understand the difference between physical and political maps as well as the physical characteristics of the land where people chose to settle. Students will examine the ancient river valley civilizations in an effort to discover the impact geography and environment have on a civilization. This is key to helping them to visualize the organic growth of a civilization. Students will explore how physical geography, natural/non-renewable resources, and location supported the growth of ancient civilizations, the characteristics of those civilizations, and how their achievements influenced other cultures.
Unit 2 -Topic 4: Goals, GLE's & Description
Unit 2 -Topic 4: Goals, GLE's & Description
Page 2
Topic 4: Goal
Students will be able to write about how geography and environment shaped the development of the South Asian civilizations by stating a claim supported by evidence.
Topics (GLEs) for the unit & pacing:
Unit 2: Approximately 7 Weeks
Topic 4: Approximately 4-5 days
Connections to the Unit Claim:
Students investigate South Asian civilizations using their study of Mesopotamia and Ancient Egypt as a model.
Claim:
How do geography and environment impact civilization?
Sub-Claim Question:
How did geography and environment shape the development of South Asian civilizations?
essential content
essential content
6.2.1 - Analyze the relationship between geographical features and early settlement patterns using maps and globes
Use maps to compare geographical features and areas of settlement in ancient river valley civilizations (Mesopotamia, Egypt, Indus Valley, China) to draw conclusions about the relationship between settlement patterns and geographical features (natural and man-made)
6.2.2 Examine how the achievements of early humans led to the development of civilization
6.2.3 Describe the characteristics and achievements of the ancient river civilizations of Mesopotamia, Egypt, Indus Valley, and China
Explain why Mesopotamia is referred to as the cradle of civilization and Fertile Crescent.
Explain the factors that gave rise to the ancient river valley civilizations (Mesopotamia, Egypt, Indus Valley, China).
Explain the importance of achievements and characteristics (large population centers, monumental architecture and unique art, writing and record keeping, complex institutions, specialization/complex division of labor, and social classes/structures) related to ancient river valley civilizations.
-Mesopotamia (Tigris and Euphrates River Valley): ziggurats, cuneiform, kings and their rule (Sargon, Hammurabi), law/legal codes (Hammurabi’s code), irrigation systems, the wheel, the plow, bronze making.
-Egypt (Nile River Valley): pyramids, Sphinx, hieroglyphics, pharaohs and their rule (Hatshepsut, Amenhotep, Tutankhamun, and Ramesses), irrigation systems, papyrus, mummification.
-Indus Valley (Indus River Valley): Harappan seals, planned cities, irrigation systems.
-China (Yellow/Huang He River Valley): oracle bones, planned cities, rule of the Xia and Shang dynasties, irrigation systems, bronze making, glazed pottery, militaries.
Compare and contrast the characteristics and achievements of ancient river valley civilizations.
6.3.4 Determine world migration patterns and population trends by interpreting maps, charts, and graphs
Use maps to analyze migration patterns in ancient river valley civilizations.
Explain the connections between trade and population growth in areas impacted by trade (port cities, cities along trade routes).
6.4.1 - Identify and describe physical features and climate conditions that contributed to early human settlement in regions of the world
Use maps to locate major physical features associated with ancient river valley civilizations and surrounding areas, including bodies of water, deserts, mountain ranges, and other features.
-Mesopotamia: bodies of water (Tigris River, Euphrates River, Black Sea, Caspian Sea, Mediterranean Sea, Persian Gulf), deserts (Arabian), mountain ranges (Caucasus, Taurus, Zagros).
-Egypt: bodies of water (Mediterranean Sea, Nile River, Red Sea), deserts (Arabian, Eastern, Nubian, Western, Sahara), and peninsulas (Sinai).
-Indus Valley: bodies of water (Arabian Sea, Ganges River, Indus River, Indian Ocean), deserts (Thar), and mountain ranges (Himalayas, Hindu Kush).
6.4.3 Explain the connection between physical geography and its influence on the development of civilization.
Explain how geography influences human settlement and the rise of civilization.
Explain which geographical features are beneficial and which are detrimental to civilization (use factors such as stability, climate, location, and resources including proximity to water).
Compare and contrast the ways geography influenced ancient river valley civilizations (Mesopotamia, Egypt, Indus Valley, China).
Explain how physical geography and climate compelled so many outside cultures to invade Egypt, taking into consideration the geographic factors of both Egypt and the invading cultures
6.6.1 Explain the impact of job specialization in the development of civilizations
6.6.2 Analyze the progression from barter exchange to monetary exchange
6.6.3 Describe the economic motivation for expanding trade and territorial conquests in world civilizations using economic concepts
6.6.4 Explain how the development of trade and taxation influenced economic growth in the ancient world
Ancillary CONTENT
Ancillary CONTENT
6.1.1 - Produce clear and coherent writing for a range of tasks, purposes, and audiences by completing the following tasks:
Conducting historical research
Evaluating a broad variety of primary and secondary sources
Comparing and contrasting varied points of view
Determining the meaning of words and phrases from historical texts
Using technology to research, produce, or publish a written product
6.1.2 Construct and interpret a parallel timeline of key events in the ancient world
6.1.3 Analyze information in primary and secondary sources to address document-based questions
6.1.4 Identify and compare measurements of time in order to understand historical chronology
6.3.1 Identify and label major lines of latitude and longitude using a world map or globe to determimne climate zomes amd time zones
6.3.2 Plot coordinates of latitde and logitde to determine location or change of location
Homework: What Did You Learn in Topic 3?
Homework: What Did You Learn in Topic 3?
Page 3
Directions for Homework: Before we start this new topic, take a minute to write about what you have learned so far. Use complete sentences in your writing. Try to fill these pages with the new knowledge you have gained. Celebrating YOU, Because YOU ARE SOMEBODY!!! Don't forget it.
Student Strategies - Caterpillar Writing, Thinking Like a Historian, & R.A.C.E.
Student Strategies - Caterpillar Writing, Thinking Like a Historian, & R.A.C.E.
Page 4
Student Strategies - CER (Claim, Evidence, and Reasoning)
Student Strategies - CER (Claim, Evidence, and Reasoning)
introducing the indus river valley
introducing the indus river valley
Page 5
Mr. Nicky's Video: Let's check out Mr. Nicky's video about the Indus River Valley - India. Are you ready? I say it again, are you READY? Let's go.
The mysterious Indus unicorn on a roughly 4,000-year-old sealstone, found at the Mohenjo-Daro site.
Mohenjo-Daro existed at the same time as the civilizations of ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia and Crete.
Indus Valley Civilization Facts - History of Ancient India _ Educational Videos by Mocomi-KhDY4KJuvc0.mp4Video #2 - The Indus River Valley
Directions: Go to your NOTEBOOK. Open the slide with Video 2 text. Watch the video and fill in the blanks. After you fill in the blanks, watch the rest of the video and take your own notes. Remember to look for the Who, What, Where, When, Why, and How parts.
SOUTH ASIA - INTRODUCTION
SOUTH ASIA - INTRODUCTION
A fertile cradle of river-fed land, crossing parts of modern India, Pakistan, and Afghanistan, gave birth to the Indus Valley civilization in the mid-4th millennium BCE. Its impressive, well-planned cities, most notably Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro, housed large populations and produced artifacts of great beauty. However, a deeper knowledge of this fascinating civilization is still tantalizingly out of reach, as the Indus Valley Script remains undeciphered. The undeciphered Indus script is found on hundreds of clay seals, along with vivid animal images.
The Indus civilization flourished for half a millennium from about 2600 bc to 1900 bc. Then it mysteriously declined and vanished from view. It remained invisible for almost 4,000 years until its ruins were discovered by accident in the 1920s by British and Indian archaeologists. Following almost a century of excavation, it is today regarded as a civilization worthy of comparison with those of ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia, as the beginning of Indian civilization and possibly as the origin of Hinduism.
Most Indus settlements were villages; some were towns, and at least five were substantial cities). The two largest, Mohenjo-daro — a World Heritage Site listed by the United Nations — located near the Indus river, and Harappa, by one of the tributaries, boasted street planning and house drainage worthy of the twentieth century ad. They hosted the world's first known toilets, along with complex stone weights, elaborately drilled gemstone necklaces and exquisitely carved seal stones featuring one of the world's stubbornly undeciphered scripts.
Follow the script
Follow the script
The Indus script is made up of partially pictographic signs and human and animal motifs including a puzzling 'unicorn'. These are inscribed on miniature steatite (soapstone) seal stones, terracotta tablets and occasionally on metal. The designs are “little masterpieces of controlled realism, with a monumental strength in one sense out of all proportion to their size and in another entirely related to it”, wrote the best-known excavator of the Indus civilization, Mortimer Wheeler, in 19681.
Once seen, the seal stones are never forgotten. I became smitten in the late 1980s when tasked to research the Indus script by a leading documentary producer. He hoped to entice the world's code-crackers with a substantial public prize. In the end, neither competition nor documentary got off the ground. But for me, important seeds were sown.
Still, today scientist struggle to decipher the meanings of the pictures and script. That is why so little is known about this area.
Directions: Watch this Video #1, and fill-in the blanks of your notes in your NOTEBOOK. You may want to open your NOTEBOOK while you watch the video.
Indus seals-limLdfgDsfU.mp4The Geography of Ancient India
The Geography of Ancient India
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THE GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT INDIA
THE GEOGRAPHY OF ANCIENT INDIA
Directions: Look at the Indian Subcontinent map as you read the following text. Write down the geographic features shown on the map as they are referenced in the text.
Geographically, India has it all. If you were to travel around India, you could climb snowcapped mountains, cross wide grassy plains, hack through dense tropical forests, sail down mighty rivers, and skirt around sun scorched deserts. You might travel under a bright blue sky or get soaked by seasonal rains.
Main Idea: South Asia's physical geography affected the development of Indus Valley civilizations.
Mountains, Rivers, and Monsoons
Present-day India, Bangladesh, Bhutan, Nepal, and Pakistan make up the large landmass, or subcontinent, of South Asia. This diamond-shaped landmass was originally an island. However, 40 million years ago, the large moving plates on which the continents lie drove the subco including Mount Everest--Earth's highest point--are over 25,000 feet high.
On either side of the Himalaya lie lower mountain ranges, including the Hindu Kush, which separates what was once northwest India from present-day Afghanistan. These northern mountains form a natural barrier against invaders. The Arabian Sea, Indian Ocean, and Bay of Bengal have provided further protection. The Deccan Plateau, which contains smaller mountain systems, makes up much of southern India.
The two major rivers of northern India, the Indus and the Ganges, both start in the Himalaya. Like the Tigris and the Euphrates in Mesopotamia, these rivers provide water for irrigation and deposit fertile soil for farming.
Strong seasonal winds called monsoons have long been an important element of the subcontinent's climate. These winds bring a dry season in winter. In summer, they bring a wet season with heavy rainfall.
Indus River Valley
Physical characteristics of the Indus River Valley offered nearly ideal conditions for agriculture. The valley's fertile soil and plentiful water supply most likely encouraged nomadic herdsmen to settle there and farm. Villages emerged. Then, around 2500 BCE, some villages grew into cities--and a civilization developed. The physical characteristics of the Indus River Valley included fertile soil and a plentiful water supply. How did these physical characteristics lead people to settle in the area and lead to the growth of villages and cities?
Review Questions:
How did physical geography affect the development of Indus Valley civilizations? (Reading Check)
What physical feature separates India from the continent of Asia? (Map Skills)
What positive and negative effects might the summer monsoons have had on farmers?
Hiebert, Fredrik T., et al. World History: Great Civilizations: Ancient through Early Modern Times. National Geographic Learning, 2016.
Lesson Activity: Vocabulary Words - HOMEWORK
Lesson Activity: Vocabulary Words - HOMEWORK
Page 7
longitude urban planning
latitude citadels
political map physical map
grid system monsoons
NOTE: Ancillary Content intentionally skipped for now. Teachers will include in their lesson. (Teachers, please see curriculum content for ancillary GLEs).
Lesson Activity: Prior Knowledge - Physical and Political Maps
Lesson Activity: Prior Knowledge - Physical and Political Maps
Page 8
Students will need to review the definitions of a Physical Map and a Political Map. Go to your NOTEBOOK write the definitions and make a list of things you would find on a physical map and a political map. Use your notebook or textbook to find the answers. You should also use the maps shown below to help you describe the two different maps. You have about seven minutes to complete this task if you are in class or a student at home, it should not take you more than that to complete. Remember, this is prior knowledge and you should know the meanings of these words.
Hemisphere Map
Hemisphere Map
Students, look at your labeled physical map of the world and add the major rivers and mountain ranges that are present in South Asia onto your map. Use an erasable pen so that it shows up. Please make sure that you include the Indus and Ganges rivers on your map. You must add symbols in the physical features section of the chart on your South Asian Civilizations worksheet. Look at the two maps below in order to determine where the major mountain ranges are located in South Asia as well as the main rivers. You may use your electronic NOTEBOOK if virtual or paper copy if in school.
Major Mountains Around the World
Major Mountains Around the World
Major Rivers of the World
Major Rivers of the World
Lesson activity: Developing a Claim/Formative Assessment
Lesson activity: Developing a Claim/Formative Assessment
Page 9
Students will need to determine what climate zones are present in the current area of study. Once you have determined the climate zones, record this information on your South Asian Civilizations worksheet.
Students that are in class will lightly shade in the determined climate zones on their map. Virtual students, please indicate this information on the map in your notebook.
Building Context: Students please research your climate zones. Use the blue button below to go to the site, "Climate Types for Kids." or use the map below. You will recognize this map from earlier topics that we have studied.
Click on the Blue Button Below to Visit the Site
Click on the Blue Button Below to Visit the Site
Climate Map of the World
Climate Map of the World - 2
time zones
time zones
Click on the link to the right to check out the time zones for your South Asian Time Zones.
DIRECTIONS FOR THE GRAPHIC ORGANIZER
Use the information from the maps to help you fill in some of the information for the above graphic organizer. Make sure that all information is correct as you may receive a grade for this work.
The ancient Indians built religious monuments dedicated to many faiths. Many are visited by pilgrims today, such as this Buddhist temple in Nalanda.
Once you have completed the above tasks, you will predict the impact of climate on human settlement patterns in this region. In other words, how will humans be affected by the climate? Use evidence from the sources and your outside knowledge to support your answers. Listed below are a few questions to help you in developing your claim. Watch the video on this page about Geography and Climate.
What would attract a group of humans to settle in this area?
What climate zones contain the best conditions for human settlement?
What physical features would attract or repel human settlement?
Go to your NOTEBOOK to answer these questions and to write your response.
Geography and Climate of India Disc Ed.mp4
Lesson activity: Developing a Claim
Lesson activity: Developing a Claim
Page 10
THINK/EXAMINE/ANALYZE: Look at the world map below, what do you see? Can you look at this map and identify where you think human settlement would occur? What do the colors mean? Colors on this map indicate the different elevations. Green generally means lower elevations. Brown on this map means mountains. The lighter color green is slightly higher elevation than the darker green. Using that information, where might humans want to live? Use this map and answer the question in your NOTEBOOK to indicate where you think humans may live.
lesson activity:
lesson activity:
developing a claim/formative assessment/summative assessment
developing a claim/formative assessment/summative assessment
Page 11
Students, you will now develop a claim identifying the region on the globe that presents the best environment for human settlement to develop. Students will reference climate and geographic features in your response and include details from task materials and class discussions. (Environmental impact on human settlement) This could be graded, teachers should use the Claim's Rubric. (One paragraph) Students, you will use your NOTEBOOKS to write your CLAIM.
lesson activity: building context
lesson activity: building context
Page 12
Students will explore the Indus River Valley and geography to help gain an understanding of the physical features that influenced the development of the Indus Valley. As you examine the sources, record details on your Characteristics of Civilization Organizer shown below. Students will also add the Indus River Valley to their South Asian Civilizations worksheet shown above, page 9. Be sure to label the political features section in the chart on the worksheet.
Click Here
Click on the blue button below to explore the geography of the Indus River Valley.
Artifact Found at Mohenjo-Daro
Lesson Activity: Developing a Claim/Formative Assessment
Lesson Activity: Developing a Claim/Formative Assessment
Page 13
1st: Students will create a VENN DIAGRAM that compares and contrast the geographical features of the Indus Valley with those of ancient Egypt.
2nd: Students will review the Indus Valley Myth. Once you have reviewed the Myth, you will write about the geographic changes outlined in the myth. Make sure that you always provide evidence from the sources. Use your background knowledge to support your answers. Here are some questions to help you in organizing your claim.
How are geography, climate, and weather portrayed at the beginning of the myth?
What changes the geographic, climate, or weather conditions of the Indus River Valley according to the myth?
Why are the people of the Indus River Valley upset with this change in geography, climate, or weather?
What happens to the geography, climate, and weather of the Indus River Valley at the end of the myth?
What are the "cloud cattle"?
Answer the questions in your NOTEBOOK.
Use the Blue Button below to Investigate the Indus Valley in order to complete the necessary work.
lesson activity: building context
lesson activity: building context
Page 14
1st: Teachers may put virtual students in chat rooms to discuss or assign as you will. In school, students may share with their shoulder partner. Students will complete this task at your teacher's direction.
Students will be assigned a topic of one aspect of daily life in the Indus Valley to research. Possible topics include:
religious beliefs (polytheistic)
fishing/hunting
homes
art
clothing/jewelry
plumbing
food/cooking
writing system
games/entertainment
achievements
2nd: Students will list the major civilizations (Harappa and Mohenjo-daro) in that section of the chart on the South Asian Civilizations worksheet.
Additional Resources for Students to Draw From for Their Research
Additional Resources for Students to Draw From for Their Research
Page 15
1: From Harappa - ART
1: From Harappa - ART
Illustration of a House in the Indus Valley Civilization
Ancient Agrarian Societies: Indus River Valley
Ancient Agrarian Societies: Indus River Valley
2: Ancient Indian Clothing in Indo-Greek Period
2: Ancient Indian Clothing in Indo-Greek Period
As new trade routes, both overland and overseas created a cultural exchange with Central Asia and Europe, there was more development seen in Indian clothing. Trade with China via the Silk Road introduced silk textiles into India. Evidence from the 1st century A.D. suggests some cultural exchanges with the Greeks. Romans bought indigo for dying and other items of clothing. This is what the dress was perceived to be as seen in the image above.
Drone View of Mohenjo-Daro
Drone view of Mohenjodaro (The Indus Valley Civilization).mp4Mahendro-daro Planning.mp4Mahenjo-Daro Housing Plans
3: Similarities and Differences in Mohenjo-daro and Harappa Civilizations
3: Similarities and Differences in Mohenjo-daro and Harappa Civilizations
Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, of the Bronze Age, depict an era that boasts of human development in architecture and city planning. A civilization that was hidden underground for many years was accidentally found, and excavations started. Both the cities are a part of the Indus Valley Civilization.
Mohenjo-daro and Harappa, of the Bronze Age, depict an era that boasts of human development in architecture and city planning. A civilization that was hidden underground for many years was accidentally found, and excavations started. Both the cities are a part of the Indus Valley Civilization.
This is the major point of similarity that has led to the conclusion that both the cities belonged to a similar civilization, which is now referred to as the Indus Valley Civilization. Both cities had extremely planned structures, that were well-equipped with good drainage and sanitation systems. They boasted of architecture that is progressive with well-defined and meticulously planned towns with streets. Archaeologists were in awe of this awesomely planned structure and detailing.
The houses were built of burnt bricks and had drainage pipes connected to them. There is also evidence of public swimming pools built along with changing rooms.
What is important to note about this civilization is that there appears to be very little instances of class differences. It seems to be a society that survived on the basis of equality and provision of good facilities to its citizens.
Continued on Next Page...
Excavation Site at Harappa Depicting a Well and Sewage System
The Great Bath of Mohenjo-daro is one of the most famous sites in the Mohenjo-daro civilization. There are many wells found in the Harappan city too, thus proving that both had a sophisticated hygiene and sewage system.
Language
Archaeologists and scientists are yet trying to decipher the language of the Indus valley. Many seals and artifacts excavated contain symbolic language, and efforts are still going on to decode them.
Sculpture
Though there are some differences in the sculptures, many artifacts have been found that are similar, such as the zebu bull, the unicorn, pottery, etc.
Occupation
Both proved to be agricultural economies. There is evidence of a granary at the Harappan excavation site in Mound F. Archaeologists have found structures that look similar to the granary at Mohenjo-daro too.
Achievements
Surveying and measurement instruments were found at the sites, that were probably used for measuring sections of the horizon and the tidal dock. Bricks used in construction serve as evidence that the Indus Valley civilians were adept in the science of measurements. The sophisticated building structures indicate their expertise in architecture.
Religion
There is no evidence of any temples or idols of deities found at both the excavation sites. Swastika symbols were found on some seals.
Economies
Both the economies seemed to be rich and flourishing, with evidence of trade activities with other civilizations. It seems to be a civilization wherein there was economic equality, and it was a rich, flourishing economy. Pottery pieces have been found at both the excavation sites. It was an agricultural economy, with rice, wheat, etc., being the major trading products. Other than that, cotton was a major trade item. Thanks to the abundant water supply from the river, the economy was rich.
There has been evidence that suggest trade activities with Mesopotamia. In fact, artifacts found at Harappa and Mohenjo-daro have been found at sites in Mesopotamia, suggesting trade activities between them.
Differences Between Mohenjo-daro and Harappa
Discovery Dates
Mohenjo-daro was first discovered by D.R. Bhandarkar in 1911-12, and later R.D Banerjee carried out the excavations during 1921-22.
In 1826, Charles Mason made the first discovery of the Harappan city. It was first excavated by Sir Alexander Cunningham in 1872-73, and later on by many other British officers with pre-independence Indian officers.
Behind the Name
Mohenjo-daro is a city of mounds. In Sindhi, it means ‘Mound of the Dead.’
Named after a modern village around the excavation site with a similar name.
Geographical Position
Located on the banks of the Indus River, in the Larkana district of Pakistan.
This site extends from the portion of Punjab province in Pakistan. It is located to the southwest of Sahiwal and is around 150 miles away from Lahore, and 250 miles from Karachi.
Note: Today, the entire site of Mohenjo-daro is located in Pakistan, whereas, there are few parts of the Harappan site which are still located in India. Other sites like Dholavira, Lothal, etc., are located in India.
Sculptures Found
Sculptures found: 2 statues of ‘The Dancing Girl’ and eleven other pieces that include sculptures of seated men, and an infamous sculpture of a man who has been referred to as ‘The Priest King’. However, there are no indications to prove that he is either a priest or a king. There are no inscriptions on these sculptures, though the dancing figurines indicate that they were inclined towards art.
There are some stark differences in the artifacts found. For example, the red jasper stone and gray stone torso found at the Harappan site are quite different from the sculptures found at Mohenjo-daro.
Thanks to the efforts of many archaeologists, these ancient cities were discovered, and it proves that architecture and art were well advanced during ancient times. The reason for the decline of the civilizations in both the cities is yet to be known, though there are theories that they were either invaded by the Aryans, or the Indus River changed its course. Sadly, these excavation sites are facing a threat today, due to environmental hazards and inadequate restoration. This rich history still has many secrets, and also a language which is yet to be deciphered. While efforts of archaeologists continue, we marvel at this wonderful history which exhibited such sophisticated and modern amenities. With time, more and more interesting facts about this civilization will be revealed.
Modern Day Photographs of Indian Women and Children in their traditional attire - Worn for special performances or occasions
Modern Day Photographs of Indian Women and Children in their traditional attire - Worn for special performances or occasions
Page 16
Modern Day
Modern Day
Modern Day
Modern Day
we have reached yet another end to a wonderful topic in ancient history. Let's go to Topic 5.
we have reached yet another end to a wonderful topic in ancient history. Let's go to Topic 5.
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