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Roman Art
Roman Art
I. Roman Republic (c. 500–31 BCE)
I. Roman Republic (c. 500–31 BCE)
The Roman Republic was established around 500 BCE, following the overthrow of the Roman monarchy.
Governed by a complex system with a Senate, consuls, and voting assemblies, Roman society was divided between:
Patricians (ruling upper class)
Plebeians (commoners)
The final century of the Republic was marked by civil wars, power struggles, and the breakdown of political institutions.
The rise and assassination of Julius Caesar in 44 BCE further destabilized Rome.
Octavian (Augustus) defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BCE, bringing an end to the Republic.
II. Early Roman Empire (Imperial Period Begins – 31 BCE)
II. Early Roman Empire (Imperial Period Begins – 31 BCE)
In 27 BCE, Octavian was granted the title Augustus, becoming the first Roman Emperor and marking the beginning of the Roman Empire.
This period launched the Pax Romana, a long era of relative peace and stability.
Emperors such as the Julio-Claudians, Trajan, Hadrian, and the Antonines continued Augustus’s efforts to glorify the empire through monumental architecture, sculpture, and public works.
The Roman Empire reached its greatest territorial extent and power in the 2nd century CE, spanning from Britain to North Africa and the Middle East.
III. Crisis and Reform (3rd Century CE)
III. Crisis and Reform (3rd Century CE)
By the 3rd century CE, the empire began to decline due to:
Invasions by tribal groups along its borders
Political instability, rapid changes in leadership, and military unrest
Emperor Diocletian restored order in the late 3rd century CE through major reforms.
He was also responsible for the greatest persecution of Christians in Roman history.
Diocletian divided the empire into Eastern and Western regions to improve governance.
IV. Late Empire and Constantine (4th Century CE)
IV. Late Empire and Constantine (4th Century CE)
Constantine the Great emerged as ruler of both East and West and enacted major reforms.
He became the first Roman emperor to convert to Christianity and made it the favored religion of the state.
Constantine established Constantinople (modern-day Istanbul) as the new imperial capital in the East.
After his death, the Western Empire weakened, while the Eastern Empire continued to grow in strength and influence.
V. Fall of the West and Survival of the East (5th–15th Century CE)
V. Fall of the West and Survival of the East (5th–15th Century CE)
The Western Roman Empire fell in the 5th century CE, traditionally dated to 476 CE, with the deposition of the last emperor, Romulus Augustulus.
The Eastern Roman Empire, known as the Byzantine Empire, survived for nearly a millennium longer.
Centered in Constantinople, it preserved Roman laws, Christian traditions, and artistic heritage until its fall in 1453 CE to the Ottoman Turks.
Roman Imperial Art
Roman Imperial Art
Sculpture and Monumental Relief
Sculpture and Monumental Relief
Augustus of Primaporta, c. 20 BCE
Augustus of Primaporta, c. 20 BCE
Divine Authority in Ideal Form
Here we see a resurfacing of Greek Classical ideals.
Augustus turned to the Classical period's sense of idealized, heroic, and superhuman qualities to promote his imperial authority and elevate the image of his empire.
He needed to create an image of himself to be respected, admired, and even worshipped—an image that conveyed both divinity and legitimacy.
This statue presents Augustus as the philosophical ideal king, combining power with wisdom and divine ancestry.
He is shown proclaiming victory to his people, establishing himself as a stabilizing, victorious leader after years of civil war.
Augustus is consciously distancing himself from the Roman Republic, adopting a visual language more in line with rulers of Egypt and the Near East, where the leader was both god and man—a divine ruler meant to inspire awe.
At his feet is Cupid, the son of Venus, riding a dolphin.
This refers to the myth that the Julian family, to which Augustus belonged, descended from Venus through her mortal son Aeneas.
It reinforces Augustus’s image as a descendant of the gods, legitimizing his rule through mythological lineage.
The use of myth and symbolism in this way is a powerful tool of propaganda, designed to make Augustus’s authority appear divinely ordained and unquestionable.
Stylistic Characteristics
The figure closely resembles Polykleitos’ Doryphoros in its contrapposto pose and ideal proportions, directly referencing Greek Classical perfection.
It uses the Polykleitan canon of proportions, presenting Augustus not as he was, but as he should be seen—ageless, flawless, and powerful.
Unlike Greek nude figures, Augustus is dressed in a detailed military breastplate, emphasizing his role as commander-in-chief and protector of Rome.
His raised right arm is that of a statesman, delivering a speech or command—linking him to civic authority and leadership.
The face is idealized but recognizable as Augustus, showing him in the prime of life, regardless of his actual age at the time.
This creates a timeless image meant to project youth, strength, and continuity of power.
The blend of Greek idealism and Roman realism serves a specific purpose: to construct a carefully controlled image of Augustus that communicates his divinity, military success, and political leadership.
A Work of Imperial Propaganda
Every detail of the Augustus of Prima Porta—from the idealized form to the mythological references and military symbolism—is carefully designed to serve as propaganda. This sculpture is not just art; it is a visual political statement, meant to inspire loyalty, awe, and acceptance of Augustus as the rightful ruler of Rome and the embodiment of Roman greatness.
Imperial art, however, was not confined to portraiture. The emperors also commemorated their outstanding achievements in narrative reliefs on monumental altars, triumphal arches, and columns.
Imperial art, however, was not confined to portraiture. The emperors also commemorated their outstanding achievements in narrative reliefs on monumental altars, triumphal arches, and columns.
REMEMBER - Historical events were not represented in Greek sculpture. If they won a battle, it would be commemorated symbolical - the battle of the Gods and Giants, Greeks and Amazons. Even when the Hellenistic period commemorated their victory over the Gauls, they did not represent the battle or a specific event, but rather the defeated soldier.
THUS - the commemoration of historical events sets the Romans apart from the Greeks
Ara Pacis, 13 BCE, Rome
Ara Pacis, 13 BCE, Rome
The Ara Pacis was commissioned to commemorate Augustus's victorious return from campaigns in Spain and Gaul in 13 BCE and was dedicated in 9 BCE. Reflecting the values of his reign, Augustus chose to be portrayed not as a military conqueror, but as a bringer of peace and prosperity—the Prince of Peace, a central image in his political messaging.
The monument is a marble altar enclosed within a sculpted screen, richly decorated with reliefs (carved images) that celebrate both mythological symbolism and contemporary Roman ideals.
The outer walls feature a monumental frieze that includes:
Allegorical and legendary scenes, such as the goddess Roma and the personification of Tellus (Mother Earth), symbolizing abundance and peace.
A processional scene modeled after the Parthenon frieze, showing Augustus leading a solemn procession of priests, magistrates, and members of his family, reinforcing the ideals of civic unity, religious devotion, and dynastic continuity.
The Ara Pacis is both a religious monument and a work of political propaganda, visually reinforcing Augustus's image as the restorer of order and moral virtue in Rome.
Detail of Ara Pacis
Detail of Ara Pacis
Processional Frieze on the Ara Pacis: A Roman Adaptation of Greek Ideals
The processional frieze on the Ara Pacis is inspired by the famous Parthenon frieze from Classical Greece. Both show ceremonial processions in a similar artistic style, with carefully arranged, idealized figures that move in a calm and dignified manner.
But there is an important difference:
The Parthenon frieze shows a mythical or symbolic event.
The Ara Pacis frieze shows a real historical event—the dedication of the altar in 9 BCE.
Although the figures are idealized, the scene includes recognizable portraits of Augustus’s imperial family. For example:
Agrippa, who died in 12 BCE, is shown prominently and larger than others to honor his status.
The Roman artists were also interested in creating depth:
Figures are carved in different levels of relief—those farther back are more shallow—adding a sense of space and realism.
This frieze shows how the Romans borrowed Greek artistic traditions but used them in a new way—to celebrate real people and events, and to support Augustus’s propaganda message of peace, order, and continuity.
Column of Trajan, Rome, 106-113 CE
Column of Trajan, Rome, 106-113 CE
The Column of Trajan was erected in Rome to commemorate Emperor Trajan's victorious campaigns against the Dacians, the ancient inhabitants of what is now Romania.
While commemorative columns had earlier precedents—such as the Egyptian obelisk—this monument is unique in that it presents a continuous visual narrative of the Dacian Wars, told through a spiraling frieze of chronological episodes. This is an excellent example of propaganda art.
The column stands 125 feet high and features a narrative band approximately 3 feet wide, which spirals around the shaft 23 times.
Originally topped with a statue of Trajan, the base also served as his tomb, containing his ashes.
The frieze includes over 150 distinct scenes, documenting not only battles, but also the geography, logistics, and political aspects of the campaign.
Although the scenes are filled with minute detail, the story remains the focus, not strict realism:
Architecture and landscape are shown in simplified, stage-like forms to maintain the flow of the narrative.
This approach prioritizes clarity and continuity over naturalistic representation—signaling a shift toward narrative clarity in Roman art.
The column was originally situated between two libraries, allowing viewers to read the scenes from upper levels.
It was also likely painted and adorned with metal attachments, making the details easier to see and more vivid.
Despite the crowding of figures, this density enhances the sense of movement, urgency, and action.
The Column of Trajan stands out in Roman art:
Narrative reliefs were common, but never before in such a monumental and continuous format.
While it lacks the emotional intensity of Hellenistic sculpture, it excels in its comprehensive storytelling and glorification of Roman achievement.
See your textbook, pages 149–150 (Figures 9.21 and 9.22), for a complete view of the column and its intricate details.
Arch of Constantine, 312, 315 CE
Arch of Constantine, 312, 315 CE
The Arch of Constantine celebrates the emperor’s victory over Maxentius and marks a transition from Classical to early Christian art.
It features spolia—sculptures taken from monuments of earlier emperors like Trajan, Hadrian, and Marcus Aurelius—to link Constantine with Rome’s golden age.
Style Shift
The lower frieze, showing Constantine addressing the people, breaks from earlier Roman naturalism:
Figures are stiff, frontal, and simplified, with large heads and rigid poses.
Depth is flattened, and scale is symbolic—Constantine appears largest and centrally placed.
Background and architecture are minimal, serving narrative clarity over realism.
Though less naturalistic, the focus is on imperial authority, not lifelike form. This shift toward symbolism and hierarchy marks the beginning of Christian visual tradition.
See your textbook, (bottom frieze) for visual reference.
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