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BRIEF HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF EARLY, HIGH, AND LATE CLASSICAL GREEK ART
BRIEF HISTORICAL OVERVIEW OF EARLY, HIGH, AND LATE CLASSICAL GREEK ART
- War with Persia
Athens went to war with the Persian Empire.
In 490 B.C., Darius the Great, King of Persia, attempted to invade mainland Greece but was defeated.
A second invasion, launched in 479 B.C. by the Persians, also failed.
The Persian threat ended in 479 B.C.
The defeat of the Persians marked a turning point in Greek art, ushering in the Early Classical Period.
- Rise of City-States
Athens emerged as the dominant power in the Aegean region.
Sparta maintained dominance over mainland Greece and the Peloponnese.
- Stylistic Periods of Classical Greek Art
Classical Greece spans from 480 B.C. to 323 B.C., ending with the death of Alexander the Great.
Stylistically, the Classical Period is divided into:
Early Classical (c. 480–450 B.C.)
High Classical (c. 450–400 B.C.)
Late Classical (c. 400–323 B.C.)
- During this era, artists developed and refined:
Mastery of human anatomy
Increased naturalism in sculpture and painting
Use of illusionistic space in compositions
Artistic ideals linking physical beauty with moral and spiritual virtue
The canon of proportions, formalized by sculptor and theorist Polykleitos
Contrapposto – the shift in weight that introduced a sense of movement and realism
Artistic idealism – portraying figures in their perfect, balanced forms
Calm, static expressions and poses reflecting control and rationality
Early Classical Period (c. 480–450 B.C.)
Early Classical Period (c. 480–450 B.C.)
Also known as the “Severe Style” due to a move away from the stiffness of Archaic art.
Marked by increased realism and a focus on the idealized human body.
Early use of contrapposto—a more natural stance with a shift in weight.
Art reflected a new confidence following Greek victory over Persia.
Emphasis on simplicity, balance, and restraint.
The marble statue known as the Kritios Boy, c. 480 BCE, attributed to the sculptor Kritios, represents a major shift in Greek art and is one of the earliest and best examples of the new developments of the Early Classical Period.
The marble statue known as the Kritios Boy, c. 480 BCE, attributed to the sculptor Kritios, represents a major shift in Greek art and is one of the earliest and best examples of the new developments of the Early Classical Period.
The figure departs significantly from the rigid, formal stance of the Archaic kouros statues.
The Kritios Boy appears far more natural and lifelike, demonstrating a deeper understanding of human anatomy.
There is greater attention to naturalistic details, such as the soft, rounded facial features, the carefully rendered hair, and the subtle turn of the body.
The facial expression is calm and introspective, replacing the stylized and unnatural "Archaic smile" with a more believable emotional tone.
Most importantly, the statue introduces the concept of contrapposto (counterpose):
The weight of the body rests on the left leg, while the right leg is relaxed and slightly bent at the knee.
This shift in weight creates a slight curve in the spine and a gentle tilt in the hips and shoulders.
As a result, the pose feels balanced, relaxed, and more true to life.
The rigid frontally and symmetrical posture of the Archaic kouros are replaced by a dynamic, more organic pose. The Kritios Boy stands as the first clear example of contrapposto in Greek sculpture—a revolutionary understanding of how the human body behaves at rest.
This new articulation of the human form, first seen in the Kritios Boy, would be fully developed and perfected in the High Classical period, exemplified in later works like those of Polykleitos and Phidias.
High Classical Period (450–400 B.C.)
High Classical Period (450–400 B.C.)
A period of tension and conflict between Athens and Sparta, known as the Peloponnesian Wars.
In 404 B.C., Athens was defeated by Sparta.
The fall of Athens marked the end of the High Classical Period, which had centered on Athenian artistic and cultural achievements.
Polykleitos, Doryphoros (Spear Bearer), c. 440 B.C.
Polykleitos, Doryphoros (Spear Bearer), c. 440 B.C.
Polykleitos’s Doryphoros (Spear Bearer) represents an idealized young athlete and, in keeping with Greek artistic tradition, is depicted nude. It is considered one of the most famous and influential sculptures of antiquity.
Polykleitos developed a set of ideal mathematical proportions for the human body known as the Canon, which he used to guide the creation of the Doryphoros. This system became a standard model for classical sculpture for centuries to follow.
The figure stands in contrapposto, similar to the Kritios Boy, but with greater complexity:
The weight rests on the right (engaged) leg, while the left (free) leg is relaxed and slightly bent.
The head is turned slightly toward the engaged leg, contributing to a naturalistic asymmetry.
A subtle S-curve runs through the body, enhancing the sense of movement and harmony.
Polykleitos demonstrates a sophisticated understanding of human anatomy, seen in details such as:
Defined kneecaps
Carefully modeled ribcage
Visible veins in the arms and hands
The figure is shown mid-stride in a calm, deliberate walk, emphasizing balance, poise, and the natural shift of weight.
The Doryphoros embodies the Greek ideal of arete—excellence and virtue—and reflects the Spartan ideal of a disciplined, physically perfected warrior. The figure’s muscular, heavy-set build and solid stance mirror the structural strength of the Doric order in architecture.
Parthenon, by Iktinos and Kallikrates, Acropolis, Athens, 447-438 BCE
Parthenon, by Iktinos and Kallikrates, Acropolis, Athens, 447-438 BCE
At the beginning of the Classical period, the original buildings on the Acropolis in Athens were destroyed during the Persian invasions.
In the aftermath of the Persian defeat, Athens undertook the ambitious project of rebuilding the Acropolis. This reconstruction was both practical and symbolic—meant to celebrate Athens' triumph and reflect its rise as a cultural, political, and military power in the Greek world.
Under the leadership of Pericles and the direction of master artists and architects, a series of monumental buildings were constructed, showcasing exceptional craftsmanship and the ideals of Classical harmony and proportion.
Among these, the Parthenon (built 447–438 B.C.) stands as the most iconic and influential structure of Classical Greece.
The Parthenon: The High Point of Doric Architecture
The Parthenon: The High Point of Doric Architecture
The Parthenon is widely regarded as the pinnacle of Doric architecture.
It is a Doric peripteral temple (columns on all four sides), built on the ruins of an earlier Archaic temple, but on a much grander scale—measuring approximately 70 x 30 meters.
The structure follows the ideal Doric proportion:
Eight columns across the façade and seventeen along the sides, adhering to the standard ratio: 8 x 2 + 1 = 17.
The cella (inner chamber) is divided into two sections:
The main room housed the colossal gold and ivory statue of Athena Parthenos, created by Phidias.
The smaller rear chamber, likely used as a treasury, featured four Ionic columns, showing a deliberate fusion of Doric and Ionic styles.
The statue of Athena was surrounded by a two-storied Doric colonnade, emphasizing grandeur and symmetry.
The interior space was relatively small and not intended for public gathering. Instead, the temple was designed to be admired from the exterior, with its sculptural decoration and harmonious proportions playing a central role in its aesthetic impact.
Other Key Structures on the Acropolis
(Refer to your textbook and video for details.)
Temple of Athena Nike (427–424 B.C.) – Figure 7.29
Erechtheion (421–405 B.C.) – Figure 7.31
Propylaea (monumental entrance gate) – see video
Late Classical Period (400–323 B.C.)
Late Classical Period (400–323 B.C.)
The Peloponnesian Wars (ending in 405 B.C.) left Greece politically fragmented and weakened. The traditional city-state system declined, giving rise to cosmopolitanism and individualism.
In this power vacuum, Macedon rose under Philip II and his son Alexander the Great, who unified Greece and conquered the Persian Empire, extending Greek influence as far as India. Alexander’s death in 323 B.C. marked the end of the Classical period and the beginning of the Hellenistic era.
Artistic Characteristics
Greater realism and naturalism
Focus on emotion, psychological depth, and human interaction
Less emphasis on idealism; more individualized figures
Exploration of movement, group dynamics, and states of mind
A refined balance between beauty and truth to nature
Late Classical art reflects a shift from the idealized calm of the 5th century to a more personal and expressive visual language that will be developed further in the Hellenistic period.
Hermes and the infant Dionysus, Praxiteles, 350-330 BCE Archaeological Museum of Olympia
Hermes and the infant Dionysus, Praxiteles, 350-330 BCE Archaeological Museum of Olympia
Discovered in 1877 in the ruins of the Temple of Hera, Olympia
This sculpture marks a significant shift in Classical art, highlighting emotional interaction between two figures—a tender moment between the god Hermes and the infant Dionysos.
Praxiteles softens the muscular rigidity seen in earlier Classical works like Polykleitos's Doryphoros, replacing it with a more relaxed and fluid form.
The expression on Hermes’ face features a gentle, dreamy look referred to as sfumato—a smoky, softened gaze that contrasts sharply with the stoic, hard-edged features of earlier figures.
Majestic strength gives way to sensuous languor; the god now appears humanized, engaged in a quiet, intimate moment.
Hermes likely holds a bunch of grapes, playfully teasing Dionysos, the future god of wine—an act that introduces both symbolism and emotional realism.
The famous Praxiteles S-curve—a graceful, sinuous line through the body—adds elegance and fluidity to Hermes’ posture.
Praxiteles also explores textural contrast:
The smooth marble rendering of skin contrasts with the deep, carved folds of the drapery.
The softly modeled flesh stands out against the rougher treatment of the hair.
The sculpture subtly begins to emphasize three-dimensionality, inviting viewers to move around the figure—an approach that will be fully realized in Hellenistic art.
This work exemplifies the Late Classical focus on naturalism, intimacy, and psychological presence, making divinity more relatable by blending human emotion with idealized form.
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